Effect of processing on the efficacy and safety of Solanum Aculeastrum Dunal berries

General Abstract There has been a steady increase in the use of medicinal plants in the last two decades in both developed and developing countries for prevention, management and treatment of diseases. This increase has been due to reasons such as ease of access, better cultural acceptability and compatibility, cost effectiveness and also the bid to “go natural”. Unfortunately, the notion that herbal medicines are relatively safe because they are natural has led to serious and potentially fatal consequences in phytotherapy. The lack of rigorous research to prove the effectiveness and safety of many medicinal plants is of great concern to the health care system. This thesis therefore addresses not just the efficacy, but also the safety of the extracts of the berry of Solanum aculeastrum - a medicinal plant used, among other things, for the treatment of breast cancer in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. Particular attention was paid to the possible effect of different processing methods of the berry extracts on inflammation, cytotoxicity, and toxicity. In studying the comparative effects of various processing methods, four different preparations of the extracts were investigated. These include fresh, dried, boiled fresh, and boiled dried berries. While the effect of processing on the anti-inflammatory properties of the extracts was not dose dependent, the percentage reduction in inflammation was highly significant and more prominent in both concentrations of the boiled fresh berries than the reference drug, indomethacin. Furthermore, the four extracts varied in their ability to act either centrally or peripherally in their effect on pain. Assessment of the analgesic response using the formalin test showed that, at both concentrations tested, none of the extracts inhibited the first phase of the formalin test. Furthermore, it was observed that boiling had differing results on the activity of the iii fresh and dried extracts. While boiling of the dried berries reduced pain in the rats, the opposite trend was observed with the boiled fresh berries. Results of the influence of processing of the berries on cytotoxicity indicated that the extracts are potent inhibitors of human breast, cervical and colonic carcinoma cells and the non-cancerous cells (both the actively dividing and confluent Chang liver cells). Although, in terms of relative potency, the fresh berries appeared to be the most active of the extracts, processing of the berries caused an increase in apoptotic cells and a subsequent decrease in the necrotic cells. The effect of processing on the safety of the berry of S. aculeastrum on the rats fed for 28 days was also investigated. The various doses (1, 10 and 25 mg/kg body weight) of all the four extracts did not alter the activity and the weight of the animals throughout the period of treatment. A reduction in organ to body weight ratio of the heart, kidney, liver and spleen was observed in all the extracts. Regarding the haematological parameters, different patterns of effect were observed between the extracts and within the treated doses. The observed alterations in the biochemical parameters by the various extract of Solanum aculeastrum berries at all the doses may have consequential effects on the normal functioning of these organs. In conclusion, this study has shown that there is some justification for the traditional use of the berries of Solanum aculeastrum in the treatment of inflammation related ailments and cancer. However, the medicinal use of the plant also poses considerable health risks. Investigation conducted into the plant’s safety revealed that the berry extracts were nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, haematotoxic and at higher doses, fatal. Another concern with regard to the plant’s safety is the non-selectivity of its extracts in the inhibition of carcinoma, actively dividing and un-dividing cells. Assessment of the effect of the processing on the berry’s efficacy and safety as herbal iv remedy produced mixed results. On the one hand, processing seemed to improve the extract’s anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity, while reducing its cytotoxic potential. On the other hand, a reduction in the toxicity was observed on the processed extracts compared to the fresh ones. This may be an indication that processing has an overall beneficial effect on the medicinal properties of the plant and should thus be considered as a method of making the berries of Solanum aculeastrum safer for use as a herbal remedy

Cost of Traditional Herbal Medicines for Noncommunicable Diseases in Rural and Urban Communities in South Africa

Objectives: This study assessed traditional herbal medicine (THM) and conventional medicine (CM) utilization among par- participants with a noncommunicable diseases in South Africa. Methods: A cross-sectional study of the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological study collected data through face-to- face interviews using structured questionnaires in 2014. Descriptive, bivariate, and multivariate logistic regression were used to determine the effect of sociodemographic and economic factors on THM and CM use. All statistical analyses were conducted using the statistical computing and graphics language “R.” Results: Of the total 417 randomly selected participants in this study, 85% were females, 95% with no health insurance, and 81% with monthly incomes of ,2000 rand (R) ($137 equivalent) per month. Moreover, 73% spend ,R100 per month (6.85 US dollar conversion) on THM compared with 46% of families spending ,R100 on CM last year; 7% spent .5% of their income on THM, and 10% say they are willing to pay .R500 per year on THM to feel better. Age was significantly associated with different spending patterns after controlling for other demographic factors, given that older adults were 82% (odds ratio 0.18; 95% confidence interval 0.02-0.93) less likely to pay .R100 for THM whereas younger adults were 59% (odds ratio 0.41; 95% confidence interval 0.17-0.97) less likely to pay for CM. Conclusions: The cost of using THM and CM largely differed by age. The economic insight into this study reveals individuals more willing to pay for THM to payors, which can ultimately clue payors into areas for medication optimization from po- tential drug-drug interactions and adverse events and, therefore, reduce healthcare costs

In vitro study on the hypoglycemic potential of Nicotiana tabacum leaf extracts

Inhibition of some carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes is one of the modes of action of antihyperglycemic agents. The aim of this study was to investigate the in vitro inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase by extracts of N. tabacum leaf. Powdered leaves were extracted with acetone, ethanol and water, and tested for their ability to inhibit α-amylase from Aspergilus oryzae and α-glucosidase from Saccharomyces cerevisae. The results revealed that aqueous extract of the plant was most effective inhibitor of α-amylase (IC50 5.70 mg/mL) while acetone extract exhibited the best inhibitory potential on α-glucosidase (IC50 4.50 mg/mL). Kinetic studies showed that the mode of inhibition of α-amylase by aqueous extract was non-competitive while that of the acetone extract on α-glucosidase was competitive. The observed inhibitions of α-amylase and α-glucosidase suggest that the leaf extracts of N. tabacum may be useful in the management of Diabetes mellitus, which may due to the presence of phytochemicals