Linking future ecosystem services and future human well-being

Ecosystem services are necessary, yet not sufficient for human well-being (however defined). Insufficient access to the ecosystem provisioning service of food is a particularly important factor in the loss of human well-being, but all ecosystem services contribute in some way to well-being. Although perhaps long obvious to ecologists, the links between ecosystems and aspects of human well-being, including health, have been less well understood among the social science community. This situation may now be starting to change, thanks in part to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). Causality between ecosystem services and well-being is bidirectional; it is increasingly clear that functioning societies can protect or enhance ecosystem services, and accordingly, that societies with impaired well-being (best documented in the case of chronic diseases such as malaria and HIV/AIDS) can also experience a related decline in ecosystem services. The future state of human well-being and of ecosystem services is more than the co-evolution of these two fundamental elements. Human well-being also depends, critically, upon the human institutions that govern relationships between human individuals and groups, and also between humans and ecosystem services. The scenarios working group of the MA found that human well-being is highest in the Global Orchestration scenario, which assumes the fastest evolution of beneficial institutions, and is lowest in the Order from Strength scenario. Human well-being was found to be intermediate in the other two scenarios (Adapting Mosaic and Techno-Garden) even though these scenarios share a much greater recognition of the importance of ecosystem services to human well-being

The analysis of labour utilization in smallholder tea farms in Kenya

Rapid growth has taken place in the smallholder tea sector in Kenya and the dynamic response to incentives, by which this has been accomplished, is remarkable. This study undertakes to examine the role of one of the major inputs in tea production, labour, which in addition to working on tea must also work on subsistence production, household activities and off-farm jobs. The introductory chapter traces the historical development and success of the smallholders in Kenya growing tea, a crop originally thought to be unsuited for smallholdings. The developmental aspects of tea in providing rural employment, income and foreign exchange are highlighted. The role tea plays in absorbing labour in the rural areas is considered in the context of some of the existing development models. It is argued that since the labour absorption capacity of the urban sector is limited, models of the Lewis-Fei-Ranis type may not be suitable to the Kenyan situation while models emphasising rural labour absorption such as that of Fisk (1962) and Myint's 'Vent for Surplus' model (1964) may be useful. Survey data originally collected in 1965-66 is used to examine the allocation of labour to various activities and the interrelationship between them. It is found that while other agricultural activities have a seasonal pattern, tea after establishment has some evenness and flexibility of labour demand. Tea is found to be closely associated with increasing hiring of labour (a positive correlation existing between tea acreage and hired labour). The hired labour either supplements family labour or is used where the family has offfarm work. There was no evidence of a labour constraint for tea production. The production function of tea is revisited in an attempt to include harvest labour in the function under the hyixjthesis that, at the margin, there may be some substitution between the labour and the tea bushes. This relaxes the earlier assumption of fixed factor proportions hypothesised by Etherington (1973) . However, the study concludes by not rejecting the earlier hypothesis and asserts that in a situation where there is no labour constraint, provided that capital and other inputs like management have been correctly specified, there may be no need to include harvest labour because output will determine it and this will be available in the family or through hiring. The study concludes with some suggestions for further investigations into the current situation on the smallholder tea farms of Kenya following the continued rapid expansion of the tea area and increased maturity of the tea bushes over the last fifteen years

The Food Security Equation: What is the Role of Gender and Social Amenities in this Paradigm? A Focus on Rural Households in Yala division, Siaya district, Kenya.

Food security remains a key challenge to the development efforts of most poor nations. This study investigated the significance of gender (denoted by number of male, female and children in a household) and social amenities in the food security equation. Frequency of food-related illnesses in a household was used as proxy for food security situation, while the entitlement/food utilization side of the equation was represented by the number of male and female children in the household, main source of domestic water, distance to nearest health center, means of transport accessible, household sanitation and level of awareness on basic food preparation and handling methods. Both descriptive and econometric models were used for analysis of primary data from a random sample of 100 farm-households in Yala division, Siaya district of Kenya. This study was conducted in February 2004. Results of this study indicated that majority (74%) of the rural households were experiencing poor food utilization, and were thus generally food insecure. The study also revealed that gender and social amenities were significant in the food security equation. Specifically, there was high correlation between food-related illnesses and use of untapped water, more male children than females in a household, long distance to health centers, lack of quick means of transport, unsafe food disposal and poor food storage habits. In order to improve the food utilization and thereby security for the rural farm-households, the study recommends improvement in the provision of social amenities for both male and female household members equitably.Food Security and Poverty,

Analysis of the Structure and Performance of the Beans Marketing System in Nairobi

Beans are widely grown as a major food crop in Eastern and Southern Africa. It is the most important staple food crop after maize in Kenya (ECABREN, 2000). The beans industry in Kenya is faced with problems of shortages, seasonal supply and price fluctuations and inadequate information on production, marketing and consumption. These problems are more acute in urban areas. This paper analyzes the structure and performance of the beans marketing system in Nairobi metropolitan area, the single most important beans market in Kenya. Data from a sample of 102 traders augmented by secondary data were used to analyze the marketing system by applying descriptive statistics, concentration ratios and co-integration models. The results showed that the beans marketing structure approached that of pure competition; however, lack of capital was a barrier to entry into the wholesale and retail trade. The Johansen likelihood-based vector autoregressive model showed that there was no significant co-integration of the major markets in the city possibly due to inefficient market information flow.Beans, Competitive Structure, Co-integration and Efficiency., Crop Production/Industries, Marketing,

Gender Differentiation in the Analysis of Alternative Farm Mechanization Choices on Small Farms in Kenya

Using multinomial logit we analyze factors that influence the choice of mechanization technologies in Nyanza Province. The results show that farmers are aware of the attributes of the mechanization technologies, and that animal traction is the most commonly used. Gender, formal and informal training of the household head, and technology attributes influence the choice of mechanization technology. This study recommends increased formal and informal training, extension, credit, and tractor hire services to facilitate knowledge transfer, credit, and tractor availability. The study also recommends enactment of laws that increase women's access and control of productive resources.mechanization, technology, gender, choice

Valuation of cow attributes by conjoint analysis: A case study of Western Kenya

Better dairy production could reduce poverty and improve nutrition in western Kenya, but the requisite technologies have not been widely adopted. This study collected dairy cow attributes from 630 households to evaluate what factors influence smallholder farmers to adopt technologies. Conjoint analysis was used to compute the marginal rate of substitution between attributes, marginal willingness to pay, and marginal willingness to accept. Two ethnic groups had the highest willingness to pay for cattle with a high milk yield and low feed requirement. The highest marginal rate of substitution for cattle with a high disease resistance and a low feed requirement was from households with off-farm income, from areas with a good agro-climate, and from areas where cattle had cultural functions. The results suggest that farmers are more likely to choose cross-bred than high grade cows, and that extension services have little effect on their adoption of dairy technology. Kenya’s breed policy and infrastructure may need to be revised to reflect farmers’ needs.Conjoint analysis, valuation of cow attributes, dairy production, Kenya, Livestock Production/Industries,

Valuation of Cow Attributes by Conjoint Analysis: A Case Study in Western Kenya

The objective of the study was to determine the value that different households attach to attributes of the dairy cow. The cow attributes were, milk yield, disease resistance, feed requirement. The valuation was done in order to quantify the economic trade-offs made during adoption of dairy technologies, assess resource availability, households perceptions on dairy technologies and their farming priorities. This was necessary to understand the adoption patterns of dairy technologies observed and suggest intervention. The Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRS), Marginal Willingness to Pay (mWTP), and Marginal Willingness to Accept (mWTA) that were used were determined from conjoint (CJ) analysis using data from a survey of 630 households in Western Kenya. The household characteristics that influenced valuation were off-farm income, precipitation over evapo-transpiration (PPE), ethnicity, cultural values, education, and extension. In reference to the typical households, household characteristics that showed a higher mWTP for a cow with low feed requirement implied either scarcity of feed, high opportunity cost of using land for fodder or lack of information on feed resources. The latter indicates inefficiency in resource use. A higher mWTP for a cow with high milk yield gave an indication of the households' priorities. A mWTA payment for a cow with high milk yield in the face of potential markets showed different farming priorities and lack of information. A mWTA payment for a cow with low disease resistance shows risk aversion and limited information on disease control.cow attributes, conjoint, marginal willingness to accept, marginal willingness to pay, Livestock Production/Industries,

Analysis of Factors Influencing Adoption of Dairy Technologies In Western Kenya

Indicators of poverty in western Kenya show high poverty levels. The area has low dairy development yet the potential for dairy development is quite high. Dairy farming has the potential to reduce poverty by increasing incomes and reducing unemployment. This paper reports factor interrelationships in dairy adoption with a view to understanding factors that influence adoption. The binary probit model was used to analyse data from 1575 households. Contrary to findings from similar studies elsewhere, some factors had a negative association with adoption, thus unfolding a unique adoption process. The association between the factor interactive affects and technology adoption highlighted the importance of exploring factor interrelationships. The widely held conclusion that smallholder households are resource constrained in technology adoption did not hold in this study. The source of labour supply dictated choice of variables to be used as proxies for labour availability. The exploration of endogenous relationships in the various factors dictated the use of the single probit model. The spatial factors used were highly significant in adoption, and the predicted probabilities from these factors gave a true spatial prediction. This confirmed reliability of the probit estimates. An understanding of factor interrelationships in adoption gives adoption studies high specificity while making conclusions and recommendations, thus necessitating case studies in adoption.Adoption, factor interrelationship, spatial factors, Agricultural and Food Policy, Demand and Price Analysis, Environmental Economics and Policy, Farm Management, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Food Security and Poverty, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries, Marketing, Productivity Analysis, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies,

Characterizing Smallholder Maize Farmers’ Marketing in Kenya: An Insight into the Intra-Household Gender, Wealth-Status, Educational and Credit Access Dimensions

This paper examines patterns of production and market participation among male-headed households (MHHs) and female-headed households (FHHs), in order to determine the role of gender in accessing agricultural support services in Kenya. Different methods and data sources were used: a survey of 613 maize-producing households was spread over five counties and in-depth farm interviews were carried out; principal component analysis was used to categorize households into wealth categories based on their asset index; descriptive statistics were used to generate means and frequencies; and t-test was applied to show significant differences between groups. The results showed that in comparison to MHHs, FHHs produced and marketed fewer kilograms of maize. Moreover, MHHs are more commercialized in comparison with their female counterparts. More than half of the respondents did not sell their produce, and for those who did sell maize, the farm-gate channel was the dominant outlet. Furthermore, over three-quarters of farmers who applied for credit did not receive it. Notably, there are significant differences between MHHs and FHHs in the quantities of maize produced and sold. Keywords: Market participation, Smallholder farmers, Wealth index, Gender, Kenya

Access to Land, Income Diversification and Poverty Reduction in Rural Kenya

The increasing land scarcity and the worsening trend of poverty in Kenya in recent years have raised concerns about the focus on land-based agriculture as the basis of growth in the rural areas. This paper combines two complementary data sets obtained from two locations in Kenya, drawn against distinctively different land availability patterns, to examine the diverse rural asset base and key sources of livelihood in the rural areas. The analysis reveals that while access to productive land is still an important determinant of livelihoods in the rural areas, even where land holdings are very small, growth in farm productivity alone may not guarantee households sufficient incomes to escape poverty. We find evidence to suggest that growth of non-farm sector is necessary and may be much more important in reducing risks and vulnerability to poverty and should be equally emphasized if households in such regions are to escape poverty. Off-farm earnings accounted for at least 50 percent of total household incomes in the two research locations. The study further revealed existence of significant barriers to entry to remunerative livelihoods both at farm and off-farm level. The study advocates for expansion of educational services, infrastructure and strengthening of rural institutions to spur broad-based development in the rural areas.diversification, livelihoods, land holding, assets, Kenya., Community/Rural/Urban Development, Q12, Q15, Q18, O18, O13,