Integral energy performance characterization of semi-transparent photovoltaic elements for building integration under real operation conditions

In this paper, a methodology for the integral energy performance characterization (thermal, daylighting and electrical behavior) of semi-transparent photovoltaic modules (STPV) under real operation conditions is presented. An outdoor testing facility to analyze simultaneously thermal, luminous and electrical performance of the devices has been designed, constructed and validated. The system, composed of three independent measurement subsystems, has been operated in Madrid with four prototypes of a-Si STPV modules, each one corresponding to a specific degree of transparency. The extensive experimental campaign, continued for a whole year rotating the modules under test, has validated the reliability of the testing facility under varying environmental conditions. The thermal analyses show that both the solar protection and insulating properties of the laminated prototypes are lower than those achieved by a reference glazing whose characteristics are in accordance with the Spanish Technical Building Code. Daylighting analysis shows that STPV elements have an important lighting energy saving potential that could be exploited through their integration with strategies focused to reduce illuminance values in sunny conditions. Finally, the electrical tests show that the degree of transparency is not the most determining factor that affects the conversion efficiency

Design, development and construction of an outdoor testing facility for semi-transparent photovoltaic modules

Building-integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV) is one of the most promising technologies enabling buildings to generate on-site part of their electricity needs while performing architectural functionalities. A clear example of BIPV products consists of semi-transparent photovoltaic modules (STPV), designed to replace the conventional glazing solutions in building façades. Accordingly, the active building envelope is required to perform multiple requirements such as provide solar shading to avoid overheating, supply solar gains and thermal insulation to reduce heat loads and improve daylight utilization. To date, various studies into STPV systems have focused on their energy performance based on existing simulation programs, or on the modelling, normally validated by limited experimental data, of the STPV modules thermal behaviour. Taking into account that very limited experimental research has been conducted on the energy performance of STPV elements and that the characterization in real operation conditions is necessary to promote an energetically efficient integration of this technology in the building envelope, an outdoor testing facility has been designed, developed and built at the Solar Energy Institute of the Technical University of Madrid. In this work, the methodology used in the definition of the testing facility, its capability and limitations are presented and discussed

Experimental characterization and implementation of an integrated autoregressive model to predict the thermal performance of vegetal façades

Experimental characterization and implementation of an integrated autoregressive model to predict the thermal performance of vegetal façade

Caracterización experimental y modelo predictivo del comportamiento térmico de una fachada vegetal

La aplicación de las estrategias que promuevan la eficiencia energética y la sostenibilidad en el sector de la construcción es una tarea de fundamental importancia que estamos llamados a llevar a cabo como ciudadanos, profesionales e investigadores. Esta tesis doctoral se enmarca dentro de los trabajos de investigación llevados a cabo en los últimos años que, en la línea más general de analizar sistemas a la vez energéticamente eficientes y beneficiosos para la mejora del confort de los usuarios, se han centrado en la caracterización de los efectos sobre edificios y medioambiente derivados de la aplicación de fachadas vegetales en el ámbito arquitectónico. La investigación parte del análisis del papel que las envolventes vegetales han tenido en relación a la arquitectura a lo largo de la Historia, para luego examinar su papel actual que, más allá de su reconocido valor estético, cada vez más cobra una función arquitectónica propia. Prueba de ello es la creciente integración de las superficies vegetales experimentada en los últimos años tanto en entornos arquitectónicos como urbanos; reflejo, a su vez, del desarrollo gradual de nuevas investigaciones sobre fachadas vegetales y de la difusión de diferentes sistemas en el mercado. Tras realizar un análisis detallado de los resultados obtenidos hasta el momento en el campo de la investigación y una vez detectadas sus carencias, se procede a plantear el objetivo general de esta tesis: analizar el comportamiento térmico de una solución constructiva que incorpore un elemento vegetal, a través de la monitorización de un prototipo experimental a escala real, así como, generar una herramienta flexible que permita predecir el comportamiento térmico de determinados tipos de fachadas vegetales, posibilitando su utilización en contextos diferentes al de estudio. Con el fin de elegir el sistema de fachada vegetal más adecuado para el estudio experimental, se realizan un análisis y una catalogación de los sistemas de fachadas vegetales existentes en el mercado. Para cada sistema, se destacan las principales características, las ventajas y los inconvenientes. Para evaluar la aplicabilidad del sistema a gran escala, se fijan unos criterios de selección basados en el grado de industrialización, la eficiencia energética y la sostenibilidad. Finalmente, se elige el sistema más adecuado para el estudio experimental: sistema con elementos modulares industrializados prevegetados compuestos por cajas contenedoras de sustrato y vegetación perenne. Como siguiente paso, se procede al diseño del experimento y se da comienzo a la fase experimental que comprende más de tres años, distinguiéndose dos etapas. En ambas, la experimentación se basa en la comparación de dos cerramientos idénticos cuya única diferencia está constituida por una capa de vegetación existente en uno de ellos. En una primera etapa, a través de un tratamiento estadístico de los datos, se analiza el comportamiento energético de un cerramiento sin aislante con el objetivo de caracterizar térmicamente el elemento vegetal (sustrato más vegetación), eliminado las variables relativas a la composición del cerramiento. En una segunda etapa, se monitoriza un cerramiento con aislante con el fin de verificar la efectividad energética del sistema vegetal en cerramientos aislados. Tras corroborar la eficacia energética de dicho sistema, incluso en cerramientos aislados, se concluye el trabajo con el desarrollo de un modelo de predicción del comportamiento térmico de determinados tipos de fachadas vegetales. El modelo, de rápida y sencilla utilización, permite estimar el comportamiento térmico de una fachada vegetal en función de la temperatura exterior, la humedad relativa del aire en el exterior y la irradiancia global. Dicho modelo, desarrollado a partir de los datos tomados durante la monitorización, ha sido validado experimentalmente mostrando un elevado grado de fiabilidad. ABSTRACT Mettere in atto strategie di promozione dell'e_cienza energetica e della sostenibilità nel settore delle costruzioni è un compito di fondamentale importanza che siamo chiamati a svolgere, come cittadini, professionisti e ricercatori. Questa tesi si colloca all'interno delle ricerche che, nella linea generale di sviluppo di sistemi che siano sia effcienti dal punto di vista energetico sia vantaggiosi dal punto di vista del miglioramento del comfort degli utenti, negli ultimi anni si sono occupate di indagare gli effetti sulle costruzioni e sull'ambiente derivati dall'applicazione di facciate verdi negli edifici. La ricerca si sviluppa partendo dall'analisi del ruolo che coperture e facciate verdi hanno avuto nel corso della storia dell'Architettura per poi giungere ad esaminare il loro ruolo nell'attualit_a: oltre a un roconosciuto valore estetico in maniera crescente queste tecnologie sono chiamate a svolgere una funzione architettonica propria. Ciò è dimostrato dalla crescente integrazione di superfici verdi sia a livello architettonico sia a livello urbano registrata negli ultimi anni, che è a sua volta conseguenza del graduale sviluppo di nuove ricerche sulle facciate verdi e della diffusione nel mercato di differenti sistemi. Dopo aver realizzato un'analisi dettagliata dei risultati ottenuti finora nel campo della ricerca e una volta individuate le loro carenze, si procede a fissare l'obiettivo generale di questa tesi: analizzare il comportamento termico di una soluzione costruttiva che incorpora un elemento di vegetale attraverso il monitoraggio di un prototipo sperimentale in scala reale, così come generare uno strumento essibile che consenta di prevedere il comportamento termico di alcuni tipi di facciate verdi, possibilitando il suo uso in contesti diversi da quello studiato. Al fine di scegliere il sistema di facciata verde pi_u adatto allo studio sperimentale, si effettua un'analisi e una catalogazione dei sistemi attualmente esistenti nel mercato. Per ogni sistema si mettono in evidenza le sue principali caratteristiche, i vantaggi e gli svantaggi, e si fissano criteri di selezione basati sul livello di industrializzazione del sistema, sulla sua efficienza energetica e sulla sostenibilità, con il fine ultimo di promuovere l'applicabilità del sistema a larga scala. Infine, si sceglie il sistema più adeguato per lo studio sperimentale: il sistema industrializzato modulare composto da pannelli prevegetati con substrato e vegetazione perenne. Come passo successivo, si procede allo sviluppo dell'esperimento e si dà inizio alla sperimentazione, composta da due fasi, che si sviluppa durante più di tre anni. In entrambe le fasi, la sperimentazione si basa sul confronto di due serramenti identici la cui unica differenza è costituita dallo strato di vegetazione presente in uno di essi. Nella prima fase, attraverso un trattamento statistico dei dati, si analizza il comportamento energetico di un involucro non isolato per caratterizzare termicamente l'elemento vegetale (vegetazione più substrato), eliminando le variabili relative alla composizione del serramento. Nella seconda fase, si studia un involucro isolato con il fine di verificare l'efficacia energetica del sistema verde in serramenti isolati. Dopo aver dimostrato che il sistema è effciente anche quando applicato in involucri isolati, il lavoro si conclude con lo sviluppo di un modello predittivo del comportamento termico di alcuni tipi di facciate verdi. Il modello, veloce e di semplice utilizzo, permette la stima del comportamento termico di una facciata verde conoscendo la temperatura esterna, l'umidità relativa esterna e l'irradianza globale. Questo modello, sviluppato a partire da dati di monitoraggio, è stato validato sperimentalmente mostrando un elevato grado di precisione

Testing the performance of a green wall system on an experimental building in the summer

It is known that a green wall brings some advantages to a building. It constitutes a barrier against solar radiation, thus decreasing and delaying the incoming heat flux. The aim of this study is to quantify such advantages through analytical comparison between two facades, a vegetal facade and a conventional facade. Both were highly insulated (U-value = 0.3 W/m2K) and installed facing south on the same building in the central territory of Spain. In order to compare their thermal trend, a series of sensors were used to register superficial and indoor air temperature. The work was carried out between 17th August 2012 and 1st October 2012, with a temperature range of 12°C-36°C and a maximum horizontal radiation of 1020 W/m2. Results show that the indoor temperature of the green wall module was lower than the other. Besides, comparing superficial outdoor and indoor temperatures of the two walls to outdoor air temperatures, it was noticed that, due to the shading plants, the green wall superficial temperature was 5 °C lower on the facade, while the bare wall temperature was 15 °C higher. The living wall module temperature was 1.6 °C lower than the outdoor, while the values of the conventional one were similar to the outdoor air temperature

Comparative analysis of the thermal insulation performance of a façade enclosure integrated by vegetation under simultaneous windy and rainy climatic conditions

The literature offers some studies on the capacity of the greenery apparatus to decrease wind speed and regulate temperatures with the combination of the moisture retained by the plants and the air passing through them, but there is little on the maintenance of performance under particular weather conditions. The aim of this contri- bution is to verify the effectiveness of a vegetal façade in particularly windy conditions combined with rainy and/or high-irradiation events. The subject of the study is the enclosure of the Technology Innovation Centre for Development (itdUPM), on the Polytechnic University of Madrid, where a green wall prototype has been installed. For the purposes of the analysis, the environmental variables are examined and the monitoring data received from sensors positioned at the walls and skin of the insulated envelope are compared with the green face and without, comparing the differences in surface temperatures. These analyses are further examined by considering the correlation with different weather conditions. Experimentation shows a maintenance of per- formance, retaining an insulating capacity in all seasons, in both wind and rain, with results more evident in daylight hours. This contribute want to analyse the subtle variance between the performance of south and west facades. The strongest effect came forward during the summer season because the wall is affected by continuous irradiation on the south that is, also increased by hot weather

Competitive nucleation in reversible Probabilistic Cellular Automata

The problem of competitive nucleation in the framework of Probabilistic Cellular Automata is studied from the dynamical point of view. The dependence of the metastability scenario on the self--interaction is discussed. An intermediate metastable phase, made of two flip--flopping chessboard configurations, shows up depending on the ratio between the magnetic field and the self--interaction. A behavior similar to the one of the stochastic Blume--Capel model with Glauber dynamics is found

Systems of Vegetal Façade and Green Roofs used as a Sustainable Option in Architecture

Green architecture contributes not only in reducing the building’s thermal loads but also in reducing the effects of the urban heat island in densely built-up areas in a hardly natural environment. The current green systems are built in situ/on site and are very expensive, hence the need to create industrialized prevegetated systems which improve the buildings’ energy savings and reduce the times of construction works. The present paper describes three green systems for façades (gabion façade, green sliding panel, green panel in plastic cell) and two prevegetated green tank roof systems (green roof in light concrete and pvc)

Metastability for reversible probabilistic cellular automata with self--interaction

The problem of metastability for a stochastic dynamics with a parallel updating rule is addressed in the Freidlin--Wentzel regime, namely, finite volume, small magnetic field, and small temperature. The model is characterized by the existence of many fixed points and cyclic pairs of the zero temperature dynamics, in which the system can be trapped in its way to the stable phase. %The characterization of the metastable behavior %of a system in the context of parallel dynamics is a very difficult task, %since all the jumps in the configuration space are allowed. Our strategy is based on recent powerful approaches, not needing a complete description of the fixed points of the dynamics, but relying on few model dependent results. We compute the exit time, in the sense of logarithmic equivalence, and characterize the critical droplet that is necessarily visited by the system during its excursion from the metastable to the stable state. We need to supply two model dependent inputs: (1) the communication energy, that is the minimal energy barrier that the system must overcome to reach the stable state starting from the metastable one; (2) a recurrence property stating that for any configuration different from the metastable state there exists a path, starting from such a configuration and reaching a lower energy state, such that its maximal energy is lower than the communication energy

Accelerating the development of heat tolerant tomato hybrids through a multi-traits evaluation of parental lines combining phenotypic and genotypic analysis

The constitution of heat tolerant F1 hybrids is a challenge to ensure high yield and good fruit quality in the global climate. In the present work, we evaluated 15 genotypes for yield-related traits highly affected by high temperatures (HT). This phenotypic analysis allowed to identify four parental genotypes showing promising yield performances under HT conditions. Two of these genotypes also exhibited good fruit quality traits. A molecular marker analysis was carried out for six resistance genes to pathogens mostly affecting tomatoes. This analysis evidenced the presence of a maximum of three resistant alleles in parental genotypes. Exploring single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) revealed by two high-throughput genotyping platforms allowed identifying additional 12 genes potentially involved in resistance to biotic stress, to be further investigated. Following these considerations, 13 F1 hybrids were constituted combining the parental genotypes and then evaluated for multiple traits under HT conditions. By estimating a hybrid index based on yield performances, desirable quality and resistance gene, we identified seven hybrids showing the best performances. The promising results obtained in the present work should be confirmed by evaluating the best hybrids selected for additional years and environments before proposing them as novel commercial hybrids that could maintain high performances under HT conditions