Are There Universals and Why? A Reply to Minoura and Weisz et al.

In response to Minoura (1996) it is argued that a hypothesis-generating orientation has to be followed by a hypothesis-testing approach, a sequence which was also pursued with the structural levels of the concept of human nature. The role of culture in stimulating both universal levels of construction and culture-specific shaping of knowledge is discussed, and there is an attempt to answer Minoura's questions with regard to this issue. In response to the suggestions of Weisz, Eastman and McCarty (1996) it is proposed to extend the concept of control beyond the hitherto existing conceptualization in order to arrive at a universal construct of control

Are There Universals and Why? A Reply to Minoura and Weisz et al.

In response to Minoura (1996) it is argued that a hypothesis-generating orientation has to be followed by a hypothesis-testing approach, a sequence which was also pursued with the structural levels of the concept of human nature. The role of culture in stimulating both universal levels of construction and culture-specific shaping of knowledge is discussed, and there is an attempt to answer Minoura's questions with regard to this issue. In response to the suggestions of Weisz, Eastman and McCarty (1996) it is proposed to extend the concept of control beyond the hitherto existing conceptualization in order to arrive at a universal construct of control

The adaptation of adolescents to structures of occupation and work

100 Versuchspersonen im Alter von 16-18 Jahren, die sich aus 70 berufstätigen Jugendlichen und 30 Gymnasiasten zusammensetzten, wurden über ihre Ansichten zu Beruf und Arbeit mit Hilfe eines theoriegeleiteten Interviews befragt. Der Untersuchung liegt die Frage zugrunde, wie sich Jugendliche mit der modernen Arbeitsstruktur auseinandersetzen und sie allmählich übernehmen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die drei postulierten Valenzebenen (subjektive, objektive und abstrakte Valenz) artikuliert werden, aber die subjektive Valenz die weitaus größte Bedeutung einnahm. Die einzelnen Berufszweige wiesen nach Ansicht der Jugendlichen sehr unterschiedliche Handlungsmöglichkeiten auf. Diese bildeten zugleich die konkrete Begründung für berufliche Identität und für persönliches Wohlbefinden. In Anwendung der Befunde auf Erwachsenenpädagogik und Freizeitgestaltung wird eine stärkere Akzentuierung der objektiven Valenz und die Übertragung attraktiver beruflicher Handlungsmöglichkeiten auf die Freizeit vorgeschlagen. (DIPF/Orig.)100 subjects at age 16-18 years composed of 70 apprentices and 30 high school students were interviewed about their opinions and their knowledge on occupation and work. It was assumed that adolescents gradually adapt to modern structures of work. Results show that all of the three hypothesized levels of vocational valence were articulated, but that subjective valence of work was seen as the most important one. Various occupations were perceived as having quite different attractive possibilities of action. At the same time, they are seen by the subjects as the very conditions for personal well-being and vocational identification. In applying the results to adult education and recreation programs, a stronger consideration of the „objective valence“ and of the transfer of vocational action possibilities to leisure time are emphasized

Zur Psychologie des Spiels

'Spiel als Grundphänomen menschlichen Handelns lässt sich im Allgemeinen durch die Merkmale Selbstzweck, Realitätstransformation, Wiederholung und Gegenstandsbezug charakterisieren. Kinder benötigen das Spiel zur Bewältigung spezifischer Probleme sowie entwicklungs- und beziehungsrelevanter Thematiken, da ihnen andere Möglichkeiten der Bewältigung noch fehlen. Aus tätigkeitstheoretischer Sicht dient das Spiel auch dem intensiven Austausch zwischen Individuum und Umwelt, wobei sich Prozesse der Aneignung und Vergegenständlichung die Waage halten. Die typische Entwicklung der Spielformen beginnt mit dem sensumotorischen und Protosozialspiel, setzt sich fort mit dem Als-ob-Spiel, dem Rollenspiel und dem Regelspiel. Parallel entwickelt sich aus der Exploration das Konstruktionsspiel. Alle Spielformen bilden zugleich die Basis allen kulturellen Schaffens. Spiel ist ein ausgezeichnetes Medium für die Zone nächster Entwicklung, die als zentraler Prozess der Enkulturation und Sozialisation ein Übergangsstadium zwischen vorherigem und nachfolgendem komplexeren Entwicklungstand bildet.' (Autorenreferat)'In general, play as fundamental phenomenon of human action can be characterized by autotelos, transformation of reality, iteration and subject reference. Playing is necessary for children in order to cope with specific problems, but also with general developmental and relational topics, as they lack other coping strategies. From the activity perspective children's play also provides the basis for person-environment-exchange within Aneignung and Vergegenständlichung are mostly balanced. The typical development of children's play starts with the sensorimotor and the proto-social play and is followed by pretending play, role play and rule play. At the same time the children's exploration changes into the construction play. All kinds of play provide the basis of cultural production. Play is also a excellent medium to gain into the zone of proximal development that forms as central process of enculturation and socialisation a transitional stage between the previous and the following more complex stage of development.' (author's abstract

Lernen en passant: Wie und warum Kinder spielend lernen

"Inzidentelles und implizites Lernen spielen im Alltag eine wichtige Rolle. Dennoch finden sie in der Pädagogik und Pädagogischen Psychologie kaum Berücksichtigung. In der Auseinandersetzung mit dem Phänomen des beiläufigen und impliziten Lernens erfolgen zunächst eine begriffliche Klärung und die Darstellung einiger Befunde, auf die die Begrifflichkeit zurückgeht. Sodann beschäftigen wir uns mit der Rolle beiläufigen und impliziten Lernens in der kindlichen Entwicklung unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des Spiels. Der Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf dem Aufbau von Weltwissen und Ordnungsmustern, die Erwartungen künftiger Ereignisse erlauben. Schließlich werden aus evolutions- und kulturpsychologischer Sicht pädagogische Schlussfolgerungen für eine bessere Verzahnung von beiläufigem und implizitem Lernen mit intentionalem Lernen gezogen." (Autorenreferat)"Incidental and implicit learning are ubiquitous in everyday life, however, they are scarcely considered in pedagogy and educational psychology. In this article, implicit and incidental learning are first conceptually defined and illustrated by experimental findings. Then, the role of implicit and incidental learning in child development is discussed, with a focus on the development of world knowledge and organizational patterns that can yield predictions of future changes. Finally, educational conclusions are drawn from evolutionary and cultural perspectives that seek to better integrate incidental and intentional learning in school." (author's abstract

The Concept of Human Nature in East Asia: Etic and Emic Characteristics

Adopting a constructivist approach, individual constructions of the concept of human nature were investigated by using an 'adulthood interview' and culturally adapted dilemma stories. Subjects were young adults with higher education, including university students and individuals already in work from the US, Indonesia, Japan and Korea. The central hypothesis that subjects from different cultures conceptualize similar structures of understanding human nature at different levels of complexity was clearly confirmed. A second complementary hypothesis assumed that subjects from eastern cultures emphasize a more collective and interdependent identity compared with US subjects. Content analysis revealed that all subjects from eastern cultures elaborated characteristics of interdependency that were viewed as crucial for human nature, while US subjects emphasized aspects of individuality and independence. However, without exception, eastern subjects also simultaneously stressed autonomous identity. Conflict resolutions resulting from contradictions between independent and interdependent identity are described by examples from Indonesia (parent-child conflict) and Japan (self-other conflict). Finally, a combination of universal structural levels and of a culturally shaped conception of identity is suggested, assuming that the interdependent self, more pronounced in eastern cultures, and independent identities, more elaborated in western cultures, are conceived at different structural levels of increasing complexity that show universal characteristics

Dolphin Assisted Therapy Works: Scientific Findings from Eilat and Florida

Abstract Aim of the study was to examine whether dolphin assisted therapy has an effect at all and how a possible effect can be exp lained. 220 young handicapped patients underwent a dolphin assisted therapy in Eilat, Israel, and Key Largo, Florida, U.S.A. In a p re-post-follow-up design the efficiency of the treatment was tested by a questionnaire with a five-point Likert Scale that was administered to parents as well as teachers and therapists at home, respectively. Subjects were asked before the therapy, six weeks after the therapy and in Key Largo also six month later. Factor analysis of the items resulted in four factors: cognition, emotion, conspicuous behavior and motor skills. Internal consistency was satisfying (Cronbach's alpha lies between .600 and .926). Correlations between the teacher's/therapist's judgements and parents' ratings ranged fro m .411 to .533. Since the ratings of teachers and therapists at home can serve as a criterion of external valid ity, results can be assessed with regard to their valid ity. In all four do mains parents as well as teachers/therapist perceived an imp rovement. This was also true after six month where the raters observed a further progress. Therefore, results suggest that dolphin assisted therapy had positive effects for children and adolescents under investigation. The therapy procedure differed re markably in Eilat and Key Largo which support the assumption that the dolphin himself and not other additional conditions is the main condition for the outcome