Patents for drugs and the right to development in international law

This article explores the connection of health to human and socio-economic development and the protection of pharmaceutical patents. It examines the concept of development and the right to development in international law in the context of access to medicines and patents protection. The provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the Agreement on Trade Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) that are significant to the pursuit of development are discussed. The article argues that there is a cognisable right to development in international law that is well recognised in international trade law and the pursuit of development should be duly taken into account in the negotiation and implementation of trade and IP agreements. The article highlights the potential danger in eroding the flexibilities in the TRIPS Agreement through the negotiation of free trade agreements and emphasises the need for IP and trade agreements to sufficiently accommodate and recognise legitimate measures genuinely taken to enhance national development. It is argued that developing countries should have a national IP implementation plan that can effectively enhance their human development objectives

Compulsory patent licensing and local drug manufacturing capacity in Africa

Africa has the highest disease burden in the world and continues to depend on pharmaceutical imports to meet public health needs. As Asian manufacturers of generic medicines begin to operate under a more protectionist intellectual property regime, their ability to manufacture medicines at prices that are affordable to poorer countries is becoming more circumscribed. The Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health gives member states of the World Trade Organization (WTO) the right to adopt legislation permitting the use of patented material without authorization by the patent holder, a provision known as "compulsory licensing". For African countries to take full advantage of compulsory licensing they must develop substantial local manufacturing capacity. Because building manufacturing capacity in each African country is daunting and almost illusory, an African free trade area should be developed to serve as a platform not only for the free movement of goods made pursuant to compulsory licences, but also for an economic or financial collaboration towards the development of strong pharmaceutical manufacturing capacity in the continent. Most countries in Africa are in the United Nations list of least developed countries, and this allows them, under WTO law, to refuse to grant patents for pharmaceuticals until 2021. Thus, there is a compelling need for African countries to collaborate to build strong pharmaceutical manufacturing capacity in the continent now, while the current flexibilities in international intellectual property law offer considerable benefits

The WTO TRIPS Agreement, the right to health and access to medicines in Africa

There is no gainsaying the fact that access to affordable medicine is an issue that continues to elicit a considerable degree of concern all over the world albeit the effects of the problem are evidently more devastating in the developing countries. The international patent regime under the World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) is seen as a major part of the global access to medicine problem. Patents are exclusive ownership and exploitation rights granted in respect of inventions possessing a degree of novelty, some scintilla of inventiveness over what is already known and having significant utility value2 . Prior to the advent of the TRIPS Agreement, most developing countries did not extend patent protection to pharmaceutical products. As a consequence, in those developing countries that either excluded pharmaceuticals from patenting or did not yet have a patent system in force, and that had indigenous manufacturing capacity, generic firms were able to enter the market and sell medicines at considerably lower prices than the originator pharmaceutical companies, whilst also driving prices of the original drugs down by the competitive force they exerted in the market. 3 However with the advent of TRIPS, all WTO countries became bound to grant patents for pharmaceuticals to meet their obligations under TRIPS4 . The TRIPS patent regime has therefore made it extremely difficult and nigh impossible for countries to use the types of measures that were formerly available to them to address the access to medicine problem

Upshot of Sprawl Incidence on Pattern of Land Use Changes and Building Physiognomies in Akure Region, Nigeria

This study investigates the upshot of sprawl incidence on pattern of landuse changes and building physiognomies in Akure and its environs. Usingsocial survey research method (SSRM) to investigate the upshot, data weregathered via structured questionnaires on selected households in the region,involving Akure municipal and eight contiguous communities. Basically,the survey method involves interview, personal observation and photo-snaps to elucidate existing situation in the region. Average households’population in Akure municipal was estimated at 95,232 while 14,794 wasestimated in the selected eight contiguous communities. From this, a sample of 1% was systematically selected, which amounted to 1100 sampledhouseholds. Findings show regular massive inflow of people into the citydue to unguided expansions that have serious sway on land use determinantin the city and its contiguous communities. It also has significant influenceon variation in building arrangements and facility distribution across the region. To mitigate this, the study advocates proactive efforts of stakeholders in urban management to employing inventive measures over private and public lands in logical manners. It also suggests the espousal of regional development programs to checkmate the rate of peoples’ incursion into Akure, being the state capital. Local government headquarters and other major towns in the region should be reinforced with functional basic facilities to curtail the excessive influx into the city

Evidence-Based Recommendations for the Management of Prescription Stimulants Abuse (PSA) Among College Students

Prescription stimulants have been identified as one of the most written psychoactive prescription medications found among college students. Likewise, prescription stimulant abuse (PSA) has greatly increased in the college campuses (5.4% in 2003 to 9.3% in 2013). Several factors such as (a) diversion and sharing of prescribed stimulants among families, friends and others; (b) lack of knowledge about the risks associated with prescription stimulants; (c) polysubstance use; (c) academic enhancement; and (d) stress from ineffective coping skills and life events, have been identified as contributing factors to the increase in PSA among college students. Various critical health-related symptoms such as tachycardia, hypertension, hallucinations, loss of concentrations and depression have been identified with PSA. College students with prescription stimulants need to be aware of the associated risks identified with prescription stimulants. In addition, healthcare providers caring for college students who necessitate prescription stimulants need to be familiar with substance abuse prevention efforts to manage PSA. Although, numerous interventions have been implemented to reduce prescription drug abuse in general. However, there is lack of evidence-based recommendations for the management of PSA among college students. Therefore, the purpose of this project was to develop evidenced-based recommendations for healthcare providers to manage PSA among college students. Recommendations were developed after a comprehensive literature review. Based on the evidences retrieved from the reviewed literature: increase in awareness and education pertaining to prescription stimulant, collaboration approach between healthcare providers, community, family and development of spiritual competence have been suggested for healthcare providers caring for college students with prescription stimulant. In addition, healthcare providers are encouraged to utilize these recommendations as a guiding tool when caring for college students with ADHD or with potential for prescription stimulant abuse

Chronicle of Exogenous Factors Influencing Infrastructure Maintenance in Residential Core of Akure, Nigeria

The thrust of this study is to reveal exogenous factors limiting effective infrastructure maintenance in the core of Akure. In the course of the study, 425 questionnaires were administered and retrieved from residents in this locale. Variables in this set of questionnaire were investigated analytically using Excel and SPSS software. Findings from the study revealed that attitude of misuse of facilities, ignorance, indiscipline, insufficient fund and age of facilities were the major antithetical factors affecting infrastructure maintenance in the core of Akure. It was equally unveiled empirically that bureaucratic reporting process, lack of discernible maintenance culture and poor response to maintenance request contributed to infrastructure maintenance challenges in the area. In view of this, the study recommends public enlightenment program for residents in this area to make judicious use of infrastructure assets in their domain. It equally advocates creative synergy between government and the governed through public-private partnership (PPP) initiative for effective maintenance and prompt repairs or replacement of ageing facilities in this locale

EFFECT OF LAND-USE PATTERN ON PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM FIXATION AND MAIZE PERFORMANCE

The effect of three different lands-use types for ten years on Phosphorus and Potassium Fixation and maize performance were studied at University Teaching and Research Farm.  Soil samples were collected from the different land-use systems; continuous cultivation of arable crops without fertilizer (CC-F), continuous cultivation of arable crops with fertilizer (CC+F), and Fallow. The samples were subjected to routine analysis and fixation studies in the laboratory.  Greenhouse investigation was also carried out for six weeks to evaluate maize performance in the three different land use systems. Data were subjected to analysis of variance. CC+F released the highest amount of Phosphorus (P) while the fallow released more Potassium (K).  The K released was a reflection of its high organic matter (4.5%).  The continuously cultivated soil without fertilizer (CC-F) had the highest P and K fixation capacity and therefore would require the largest amount of P and K fertilizer for optimum yield than CC+F and Fallow. Dry matter yield of maize correlated with soil organic matter; root weight; Nitrogen (N). P and K uptake; and P and K in solution at zero addition.  Significant correlation was only found between yield and organic matter and N uptake for all the soils indicating the importance of these two related parameters for good crop performance. Also significant correlation between yield and root weight was only found in Fallow and not in the cultivated soils since root impedance caused by high bulk density and gravel content probably occurred in the cultivated soils. A continuously cultivated soil thus have high nutrient fixing capacity since continuous cropping rapidly depletes the nutrients on the exchange sites or nutrient reserves of soils and when fertilizer is added to the soil it first replenishes it exchange sites before meeting the needs of crops.  Cropping practices therefore play a vital role in determining yield and nutrient release capacity of soil in conjunction with the soil characteristics.Â

Tomato pomace protects against mercuric chloride-induced neurodegeneration and motor abnormality in adult rat

Mercuric chloride is an environmental toxicant that causes health hazards. One of the mechanisms of its toxicity is oxidative stress which antioxidants are expected to ameliorate. Tomato is reported to possess antioxidant activity and this study investigated tomato pomace powder’s (TPP) effect on mercuric chloride (HgCl2) intoxication in rats. Thirty male rats were assigned randomly into five groups (n=6): Control; Propylene glycol; TPP (50 mg/kg bwt) for 19 days; HgCl2 (4 mg/bwt) from day 5 to 19 of the experiment; TPP +HgCl2, TPP (50 mg/kg bwt) for 19 days + HgCl2 (4 mg/bwt) from day 5 to 19 of the experiment. All treatments were given orally by gavage. Behavioural tests were conducted on the 20th day and rats were euthanized the same day. Blood parameters and brain tissue were examined with regard to micro-anatomical parameters. Mercuric chloride significantly reduced neutrophils, thrombocytes, transitions, rearings, forelimb grip strength and latency of geotaxis. Histologically, HgCl2 induced alterations in the cerebral cortex, dentate gyrus, cornu ammonis3, and cerebellum of rats. Treatment with TPP before HgCl2 administration significantly reduced the effect of HgCl2 on these parameters. These observations may be partly attributed to the antioxidant property of TPP. TPP demonstrated protective effects against HgCl2-induced alteration of motor anomaly and microanatomy of rats’ cerebral cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum. TPP may be a valuable agent in prevention of acute neuropathy caused by inorganic mercury intoxication.Keywords: Mercuric chloride, cortical neurons, granule cells, cornu ammonis3 pyramidal neurons, Purkinje neurons, tomato

Intellectual property law and the protection of Indigenous Australian traditional knowledge in natural resources

This essay is not about native title (though it will get a brief mention). Rather, its subject is the potential means for protecting Indigenous traditional knowledge rights in natural resources, which arguably, at its core, is about the nature of the socio-political and, perhaps more importantly, the economic relationship between Indigenous peoples and non-Indigenous society in Australia. It is these relationships which form the two fundamental pillars of the study and understanding of Indigenous/non-Indigenous relations, particularly in all common law jurisdictions in North America, New Zealand, Australia and elsewhere, and probably wherever Indigenous lands have been conquered or otherwise settled by Europeans and others

Tomato consumption protected against gamma radiation–induced alterations in the hippocampus and cerebellum of rats

Cancer causes great morbidity and mortality. Radiotherapy, one of the treatment modalities is associated with neurotoxicity; and oxidative damage has been reported to play an important role in the pathogenesis. Tomato pomace powder (TPP) may be a preventive agent by virtue of its known antioxidant property. The present study was carried out to investigate the possible protective role of TPP against radiation-induced alteration of the microanatomy of rat brain.Thirty rats were divided equally into five groups of six each: control; propylene glycol, TPP, gamma radiation (5 Gy); gamma radiation (5 Gy ) p lus TPP 50 mg/ kg . All administration was oral by gastric gavage given for 24 days except radiation which was administered as a single dose on day 25. Behaviouraltests th were conducted on the 26 day after which rats were euthanized. Blood parameters and brain tissue were examined with regard to microanatomical parameters. Data were analyzed using ANOVA with statistical significance set at p<0.05.Gamma radiation induced a significant (p<0.05) reduction in lymphocytes but an increase in eosinophils.  Neurobehavioural results showed that radiation caused a reduction in line crossing, rearing and forelimb grip. Microscopically, radiation induced histological alterations in the cerebellum, dentate gyrus and cornu ammonis 3. Co-treatment of radiation with TPP reduced the effect of radiation on the histological, haematological and, neurobehavioural alterations.In conclusion, Lycopersicon esculentum as tomato pomace powder demonstrated neuro protective effects against radiation-induced haematological,neurobehavioural alterations as well as alteration of microanatomy of rat cerebellum, dentate gyrus and cornu ammonis 3 of rat brain.Keywords: Gamma radiation, Lycopersicon esculentum, neuro protection, cerebellum, hippocampu