Valorization of oil palm empty fruit bunches into activated carbon: A mini-review

This paper aimed to comprehensively review the potential valorization of oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFBs) into activated carbon and its potential application. Activated carbon is carbon processed through dual phases, including carbonization and activation. Firstly, this process converts biomass into carbon thermally with zero to little oxygen conditions. Next, the carbon needs to be activated to stimulate the formation of pores and reduce impurities. The activated carbon’s quality is influenced by the activation process, which can be done physically, chemically, or physiochemically. Activated carbon has an amorphous structure and abundant internal pore structure, thus increasing the surface area. In Indonesia, the quality of active carbon is regulated by Indonesian National Standards or SNI 06-370-1995. The factors influencing the activation step include activator agent type, activator agent concentration, activation ratio and time, etc. . Generally, activated carbon can be widely applied to various sectors, such as agriculture (i.e., slow-released fertilizer, fertilizer, etc.), waste treatment (i.e., adsorbent, activator in anaerobic digestion/AD, bioremediation, etc.), gas purification, ceramic membrane, etc. However, further in-depth investigation is required to determine potential scaling-up and commercialization

Bioconversion of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on agricultural waste: Potential source of protein and lipid, the application (A mini-review)

Hermetia illucens, well-known as black soldier fly (BSF), is an insect easily found in subtropical and tropical regions. It contains high protein and lipids. BSF is known as one of the biological agents consuming organic components, thus having a high potential to overcome organic waste problems. BSF has promising advantages due to its long development time in the larval stage (compared to other flies) and its ability to self-separate from organic waste. BSF with large protein and lipid content can substitute the commonly used protein source in aquaculture, poultry and livestock compound diet formulation, which can be an option to overcome limited sources of future food and feed insecurity. This review analyses the latest study of bioconversion using BSF from the viewpoint of nutrient composition, degradation rate and biomass results from different feed treatments. Various feed and growth mediums have been studied to obtain high protein and lipid biomass. Hopefully, the information will provide new research directions and solutions for converting agro-industrial waste using bioconversion with BSF

Optimasi Fermentasi Alkohol Pada Proses Pembuatan Vinegar Buah Naga Merah (Hylocereus Polyrhizus) Subgrade Menggunakan Response Surface Methodology (Kajian Penambahan Gula Dan Kadar Ragi

Vinegar merupakan suatu produk fermentasi yang dibuat melalui proses bioteknologi dengan dua tahap fermentasi yaitu fermentasi alkohol dan asam asetat. Vinegar dapat dibuat dari buah-buahan atau berbagai bahan pangan lainnya, salah satunya adalah buah naga merah. Vinegar memiliki aroma yang kuat dan unik karena mengandung asam asetat dan berpotensi dalam kesehatan manusia seperti menjadi antibakteri. Buah naga merah (Hylocereus polyrhizus) termasuk buah tropis yang banyak dibudidayakan dan mengandung polifenol yang tinggi dan berpotensi menjadi antioksidan. Namun panen buah naga menghasilkan ukuran dan kualitas yang berbeda-beda sehingga mempengaruhi keputusan pembelian konsumen. Kualitas terendah sering tidak seluruhnya dibeli konsumen dan menjadi rusak saat transportasi dan penyimpanan yang dapat menjadi sumber limbah. Oleh karena itu, pengolahan buah naga merah subgrade menjadi vinegar adalah salah satu solusi yang dapat diakukan. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mendapatkan kombinasi yang optimal dari penambahan gula (%b/v) dan kadar ragi (%v/v) fermentasi alkohol pada proses pembuatan vinegar buah naga merah. Level yang digunakan untuk penambahan gula adalah 8% sebagai batas bawah dan 12% sebagai batas atas, sedangkan untuk kadar ragi adalah 0,2% sebagai batas bawah dan 0,8% sebagai batas atas. Selanjutnya digunakan respon kadar alkohol dalam rentang 4-14%(v/v) dan dimasukkan ke dalam Response Surface Methodology (RSM) untuk didapatkan solusi optimalnya.xiv Berdasarkan hasil penelitian, didapatkan solusi optimal penambahan gula sebanyak 12%(b/v) dan kadar ragi sebesar 0,8%(v/v) dengan kadar alkohol sebesar 7,956%(v/v) dan akurasi 94,51% dengan yang diprediksikan program RSM. Hasil pengujian terhadap vinegar buah naga didapatkan kadar alkohol sebesar 1,12%(v/v); kadar asam asetat sebesar 3,43%; pH 3,5; TPT 3,4ºBrix; IC50 sebesar 20,2665 mg/ml; dan diameter zona hambat (antimikrobial) sebesar 0,67 cm. Kadar asam asetat yang dihasilkan dari optimasi ini belum memenuhi standar asam setat yang diizinkan untuk diedarkan. Disisi lain, pengolahan buah naga menjadi vinegar dapat meningkatkan aktivitas antioksidannya sebesar 20,34

Fostering empowerment and building capacities of rural women through community-based agroindustry: A case study in Donowarih Village, Indonesia

Donowarih village, located in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia, is closed to the Universitas Brawijaya’s Educational Forest (known as UB Forest). The village has various potential local commodities such as orange fruits and batik. During harvesting season, the price of orange fruits declined, and inadequate storage system has led to a rapid deterioration of orange fruits. Furthermore, various problems faced by the community, such as poverty and lack of knowledge/skills, are becoming the major challenges to be tackled. On the other hand, orange fruits and batik are potential to be diversified into high value-added products, which can be done through the introduction of post-harvesting technology and trainings for skills improvement. Furthermore, the Indonesian Government program of one village one product (OVOP) is becoming key drivers to any community engagement program in Indonesia

Biorefining of oil palm empty fruit bunches for bioethanol and xylitol production in Indonesia: A review

Indonesia has an intensive agro-industrial sector which evolves large volumes of residues each year. Currently, these residues are under-utilized and have a deleterious impact on the environment, Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches (OPEFBs) in particular are highly abundant and offer good potential for conversion to bioenergy and bio-based products, in particular bioethanol and xylitol (widely used as an artificial sweetener and can substitute sugar in food and pharmaceutical industries). This paper provides a comprehensive review of the techno-economic opportunities and challenges for the wider utilization of OPEFBs for the generation of bioethanol and xylitol in Indonesia. This review highlights the significant potential for the valorization of OPEFB based on resource availability in the country (828 MWe/year or 45.86 Mt/year) and growing demand for both bioethanol (from 0.22 billion L in 2019 to 10.38 billion L in 2025) and xylitol (up to 2.20 kt in 2020). Various process configurations were explored to assess the potential for simultaneous co-production of bioethanol and xylitol. A mass balance and techno-economic assessment showed that the preferred scenario was Scenario 3 (co-production of bioethanol with xylitol and lignin) and that this has the potential to generate 46,145 kL bioethanol, 7.716 kt xylitol, and 25.704 kt lignin per year. This is significant given the limited production for both bioethanol and xylitol in the country currently. Further work is required to address challenges around technical, policy and supply chains. This work provides an original and novel strategy to support the wider adoption of commercially viable bioethanol production in Indonesia

Perbandingan Pre-treatment Kimia dan Biologis pada Tandan Kosong Kelapa Sawit (TKKS) terhadap Produksi Biogas dan Bioetanol.

Produksi kelapa sawit (Elaeis guineensis) di Indonesia mencapai 49,12 juta ton pada tahun 2020. Satu ton tandan buah segar (TBS) di Indonesia menghasilkan sekitar 22,5% tandan kosong kelapa sawit (TKKS) sebagai limbah padat terbanyak dalam memproduksi minyak kelapa sawit. Dengan demikian, pada tahun 2020 diperkirakan potensi TKKS sebesar 11.052 juta ton. TKKS mengandung 44,2% selulosa; 33,5% hemiselulosa; dan 20,4% lignin. Dominasi selulosa dalam TKKS berpotensi tinggi sebagai bahan baku produksi biogas dan bioetanol. Namun, efisiensi konversi TKKS menjadi biogas dan bioetanol masih perlu ditingkatkan karena kandungan ligninnya yang tinggi. Penggunaan pre-treatment kimia (yaitu asam sulfat (H2SO4), natrium hidroksida (NaOH)) dan pre treatment biologis (yaitu ensiling dengan EM4 atau molase, dan enzim laccase) telah banyak digunakan dalam mengurangi kandungan lignin di TKKS. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengevaluasi pengaruh pre-treatment kimia dan biologis (misalnya H2SO4, NaOH, EM4, molase, dan enzim laccase) (i) terhadap karakteristik TKKS dan (ii) terhadap produksi biogas dan bioetanol. Penelitian ini juga bertujuan untuk (iii) menentukan pilihan pre-treatment terbaik untuk meningkatkan produksi biogas dan bioetanol dari TKKS. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada bulan September 2020 hingga Oktober 2021 di Laboratorium Bioindustri, Jurusan Teknologi Agroindustri, Fakultas Teknologi Pertanian Universitas Brawijaya. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah Rancangan Percobaan Tersarang menggunakan 2 faktor pre-treatment kimia (H2SO4 dan NaOH) dan tiga faktor pre-treatment biologis (ensiling dengan penambahan EM4, ensiling dengan penambahan molase, dan enzim laccase). Setiap faktor terdiri dari 3 tingkat konsentrasi yang tersarang di setiap faktor pre-treatment dan setiap perlakuan diulang sebanyak 3 kali. Hasil pre-treatment dilakukan pengukuran kandungan proksimat, komposisi unsur (CHNS), nilai kalor, lignoselulosa, total gula reduksi (TGR), struktur permukaan dan morfologi menggunakan scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dan komposisi unsur/mineral menggunakan energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Untuk mengukur potensi biogas dan metana, dilakukan dengan menggunakan AMPTS II selama 28 hari pada kondisi mesofilik. Produksi bioetanol dari TKKS dilakukan dengan metode separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF). Pre-treatment terbaik dipilih dengan menggunakan metode Zeleny. Hasil percobaan pre-treatment menunjukkan bahwa seluruh pre-treatment berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap peningkatan karakteristik TKKS terutama terhadap penurunan kadar lignin. Volatile solid (VS) tertinggi pada pre-treatment asam dengan konsentrasi H2SO4 sebesar 1,6% v/v (98,83%), karbohidrat tertinggi pada pre-treatment enzimatik dengan enzim laccase 3U/g (85,17 %TS), CV tertinggi pada pre-treatment enzimatik enzim laccase 3U/g (20,82 MJ/kg TS), selulosa tertinggi dan lignin terendah pada pre-treatment enzimatik enzim laccase 3U/g (49,32% dan 12,45%), TGR tertinggi pada pre-treatment ensiling dengan penambahan molase 6% (87,43%), semua pre-treatment menyebabkan kerusakan morfologi permukaan TKKS, dan kandungan karbon tertinggi pada pre-treatment ensiling dengan penambahan EM4 9% (64,63%). SMP tertinggi diperoleh dari pre-treatment ensiling dengan penambahan molase 6% (0,183 m3 CH4/kg VS). Rendemen bioetanol tertinggi diperoleh dari pre-treatment ensiling dengan penambahan molase 4% (51,55%). Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa pre-treatment terbaik untuk menghasilkan biogas dari TKKS adalah pre-treatment basa dengan NaOH 3,8 %w/v dan pre-treatment terbaik untuk menghasilkan bioetanol dari TKKS adalah pre-treatment basa dengan NaOH sebesar 1,8 %w/v

Food waste to bioenergy: Current status and role in future circular economies in Indonesia

Like many countries, Indonesia generates large quantities of food waste. Food waste is poorly managed due to inadequate treatment practices, which has a harmful impact on the environment. This paper demonstrates the high potential for food waste valorization in Indonesia and outlines the optimal valorization pathways to inform future decision-making surrounding the management of this waste. This paper also compares various conversion technologies for transforming food waste into liquid, solid, and gaseous biofuels. The challenges and opportunities for wider implementation are also considered, including the integration of supply chains and the logistics of food waste management, the technological feasibility, and the persistent behaviors surrounding food waste and energy in Indonesia. The economic and environmental benefits, the perspectives of improved food waste management practices and sustainable fuels, as well as the policy landscape surrounding waste and sustainable energy are also explored. The challenges of scalability and commercialization are also highlighted in this paper. This review demonstrates the best pathways from food waste valorization to bioenergy, including biogas or biodiesel integrated with a black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) composting system. Despite the scale of resources in Indonesia, the pathways and technologies for processing food waste are lacking. Further in-depth studies are required to demonstrate the sustainability and feasibility of food waste transformation into bioenergy to realize its high value

Sustainable strategies for anaerobic digestion of oil palm empty fruit bunches in Indonesia: a review

Indonesia has abundant oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFBs). However, high lignin content in OPEFBs may hinder their valorisation to bioenergy resources, as its degradation by microorganisms is rate-limiting. This paper aims to review OPEFB as feedstock in anaerobic digestion (AD) systems and sustainable strategies to enhance methane yield. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the availability of OPEFB, the prospective of AD technology, and compares various biological pre-treatment and co-digestion strategies for superior AD process. Improving the value-added benefits from OPEFBs and simultaneously making pre-treatment processes more sustainable is critical to wider application. Several scenarios were proposed by combining multi-stage pre-treatment of physical and mushroom cultivation pre-treatment prior to AD. This paper presents an original approach to establishing a commercially viable and sustainable AD of OPEFBs in Indonesia by integrating multi-product biorefinery and a circular economy. Further investigation is required to ensure cost-effective and eco-friendly configurations. Abbreviations: ABR: Anaerobic Baffled Reactor; AD: Anaerobic Digestion; AF: Anaerobic Filter; AFEX: Ammonia Fibre Expansion; AI: Artificial Intelligence; AnMBR: Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor; ANN: Artificial Neural Network; ASP: Activated Sludge Process; CMM: Cattle Manure and Maize Silage; COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand; CPO: Crude Palm Oil; CPW: Cocoa Pods Waste; CSTR: Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor; DH: Dry Husk; DM: Dry Matter; DMF: 2,5-dimethylfuran; EM: Effective Microorganisms; EGSB: Expanded Granular Sludge Bed; FBR: Fluidised Bed Reactors; FFB: Fresh Fruit Bunch; FTIR: Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy; GHG: Greenhouse Gasses; HRT: Hydraulic Retention Time; IC: Internal Circulation Reactor; IoT: Internet of Things; Lac: Laccase Enzyme; L-AD: Liquid-AD; LiP: Lignin Peroxidase; LRAD: Low-Rate AD; MARS: Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines; MCC: Microcrystalline Cellulose; MDF: Medium-Density Fibreboard; MEMR: Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, Republic of Indonesia; ML: Machine Learning; MnP: Manganese Peroxidase; MPA: Marine Predators Algorithm; MSW: Municipal Solid Waste; OFMSW: Organic Fraction of Municipal Solid Waste; OLR: Organic Loading Rates; OPEFBs: Oil Palm Empty Fruit Bunches; OPF: Oil Palm Fibre; OPKS: Oil Palm Kernel Shell; OPMF: Oil Palm Mesocarp Fibre; OPT: Oil Palm Trunk; P(3HB): Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate); PHA: Polyhydroxyalkanoate; PLTBg: Biogas Power Plants; POM: Palm Oil Mill; POME: Palm Oil Mill Effluent; SCG: Spent Coffee Grounds; SRF: Solid Refused Fuel; SRT: Solids Retention Time; SS-AD: Solid-State AD; TS: Total Solid; TSI: Torrefaction Severity Index; UASB: Up-flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket; VFA: Volatile Fatty Acids; VP: Versatile Peroxide; VS: Volatile Solid; W2E: Waste-to-Energy

Enhancing anaerobic digestion of wild seaweed Gracilaria verrucosa by co-digestion with tofu dregs and washing pre-treatment

Marine biomass (such as wild seaweed Gracilaria verrucosa) is highly abundant in Indonesia and has been highlighted as a potential biomass resource for bioenergy production. Furthermore, agro-industrial waste (such as tofu dregs/TD which arises from large-scale production in the country) is rich in carbohydrates and proteins, and is therefore considered a viable feedstock for production of high-value added products. This study aimed to investigate the co-digestion of wild seaweed G. verrucosa (WGv) with TD and its impacts on biogas and methane production. The biochemical methane potential (BMP) test was operated for 28 days at temperature of 37 °C. The co-digestion of WGv with TD at 90:10 and 80:20 ratios significantly increased the specific methane potential (SMP), giving an average of 98 LCH4/kgVS and 120 L CH4/kgVS, respectively. Addition of co-digestion substrates promoted co-metabolism in the digesters, increasing the ability of the microorganism to effectively digest the organic matter present in the feedstock’s mixture. The washing pre-treatment reduced the concentration of inorganic compounds and salts within the wild seaweed G. verucosa, leading to an improvement in biogas and methane yield. The mass balance illustrated that this process configuration led to a reduction in the quantity of digestate to be managed (i.e. dewatering, transport, and land/soil application). This will subsequently reduce the cost and energy requirements for sludge management, estimated at 37%. Therefore, the co-digestion of WGv with TD and the application of a washing pre-treatment stage prior to AD can positively enhance biogas and methane production. In-depth investigation for optimal valorisation using AD technology is highly essential

Valorisation of macroalgae for biofuels in Indonesia: an integrated biorefinery approach

Globally, bioenergy development depends on the efficacy and affordability of conversion technologies and the availability of renewable biomass sources. As a tropical country, Indonesia has a wide range of biomass sources, either from land or marine biomass (i.e. macroalgae). The current estimation of macroalgae potential in Indonesia is estimated at approximately 9.96 million tonnes or about 26.86% share of world production in 2021. Specifically, marine macroalgae (wild or cultivated) have received attention for their potential as renewable resources for the sustainable bioenergy production, supporting a move towards a circular economy. However, as a developing country, Indonesia still needs to evolve and further advances its technology and skill capacity to address research, development, and innovation challenges in this area. Thus, this paper examines the potential biorefinery approach for application and commercialisation in Indonesia. It discusses cultivation practices and the future direction of the most sustainable and feasible routes for bioenergy production from macroalgae, exploring recent developments, opportunities, and challenges towards circular processes. The study proposed that the biorefining of macroalgae into bioethanol, biogas, compost, and solid fuels, either as mono – or co-production, are potential. Therefore, this paper may offer to narrowing the literature’s gap and adding a new perspective on the adoption of macroalgae-based bioenergy with integrated biorefinery and closed-loop systems approaches