On truth and polarity in negation processing: language-specific effects in non-linguistic contexts

IntroductionThis study examines how negation is processed in a nonverbal context (e.g., when assessing ▲ ≠ ▲) by speakers of a truth-based system like Mandarin and a polarity-based system like English. In a truth-based system, negation may take longer to process because it is typically attached to the negation as a whole (it is not true that triangle does not equal triangle), whereas in polarity-based systems, negation is processed relatively faster because it is attached to just the equation symbol (triangle does not equal triangle), which is processed relatively faster. Our hypothesis was that negation processing routines previously observed for verbal contexts, namely that speakers of Mandarin get slowed down more when processing negative stimuli than positive stimuli compared to speakers of English, also extend to contexts when language use is not obligatory.MethodsTo test this, we asked participants to agree/disagree with equations comprising simple shapes and positive ‘=’ or negative ‘≠’ equation symbols. English speakers showed a response-time advantage over Mandarin speakers in negation conditions. In a separate experiment, we also tested the contribution of equation symbols ‘≠’/‘=’ to the cognitive demands by asking participants to judge shape sameness in symbol-free trials, such as ▲ ■. This comparison allowed us to test whether crosslinguistic differences arise not because of shape congruence judgement but arguably due to negation attachment.Results and discussionThe effect of the ‘≠’ symbol on shape congruence was language-specific, speeding up English speakers but slowing down Mandarin speakers when the two shapes differed. These findings suggest language-specific processing of negation in negative equations, interpreted as novel support for linguistic relativity

Defying chronology: : Crosslinguistic variation in reverse order reports

Much of how we sequence events in speech mirrors the order of their natural occurrence. While event chains that conform to chronology may be easier to process, languages offer substantial freedom to manipulate temporal order. This article explores to what extent digressions from chronology are attributable to differences in grammatical aspect systems. We compared reverse order reports (RORs) in event descriptions elicited from native speakers of four languages, two with (Spanish, Modern Standard Arabic [MSA]) and two without grammatical aspect (German, Hungarian). In the Arabic group, all participants were highly competent MSA speakers from Palestine and Jordan. Standardized frequency counts showed significantly more RORs expressed by non-aspect groups than by aspect groups. Adherence to chronology changing as a function of contrast in grammatical aspect signal that languages without obligatory marking of ongoingness may provide more flexibility for event reordering. These findings bring novel insights about the dynamic interplay between language structure and temporal sequencing in the discourse stream

‘It starts to explode.’ Phasal segmentation of contextualised events in L2 English

En route to acquiring novel principles of temporal information organisation in the target language, second language (L2) learners exhibit a capacity to build temporal constructions of their own, which are not necessarily fixed in the principles of either their source or their target language system. This study surveys hitherto unattested interlanguage phenomena found in the phasal segmentation patterns of two intermediate-level learner groups with unrelated source languages, and identifies analogies of shared developmental patterns. Film verbalisations and acceptability judgements (AJ) were used to elicit responses from Czech and Hungarian intermediate learners of English, and their analyses yielded a threefold benefit. They generated representative degrees of granularity for each group who experiment with new segmentation techniques. They also showed that the ways in which learners partition events in production (pronounced digression from the target) do not directly replicate patterns in acceptability judgements (closer approximation to the target). And thirdly, overlaps and contrasts between learner and native control speaker preferences for phasal partitioning varied in close relation to specific aspectual properties inherent to the verbs used. The combination of production features and acceptability judgements from L2 groups with distant L1s provides an informative mosaic of how learners at intermediate L2 proficiency strive for an optimal fit when combining available linguistic elements to express specific event phases

Covariation between temporal interlanguage features and nonverbal event categorisation

This study investigates crosslinguistic influence and conceptual transfer in advanced Chinese learners of English on two levels: expression and categorisation. Specifically, it tests how patterns of temporal reference in learners’ linguistic expression co-vary with their nonverbal event categorisation. The key structural difference between the target and the source language is that achievements are compatible with grammatical ongoingness marking in English (the door is closing) but not in Chinese (*men zai guan). 42 learners were asked to retell videos with achievement-type events (throw away a frisbee) and activities (push a piano) in English. Before expression, the same learners judged which animation (action-biased vs. result-biased) looks most like the model clip (equidistant from event midpoints). Results from expression showed pronounced crosslinguistic influence in learners’ infrequent combination of ongoingness with achievements, when compared with the English controls. Categorisation data signals that L1-modulated preferences also underlie learners’ nonverbal judgements. Crucially, the main new finding is covariation between the frequency of combined forms in learners’ retellings (he is running with a frisbee and threw it away) and how much their overall categorisation choices approximate to those in the target control group. Using a combined new methodology, the reported modulation of learners’ nonverbal behaviour by interlanguage systems provides a hitherto unattested empirical contribution to our understanding of L2 learners’ cognitive restructuring

Facilitative effects of learner-directed codeswitching : Evidence from Chinese learners of English

This study examines the interaction between learner-oriented codeswitching (CS) practices and the degree to which intermediate Chinese L2 learners of English engage in classroom interaction. The guiding questions are whether the teacher's CS use facilitates classroom interaction at moderate L2 proficiency, and if so, at which specific stages of the lesson, and to what extent. A systematic comparison of two classroom types was carried out in the same Chinese secondary school, with English-only instruction versus with English–Chinese CS. A combination of quantitative and qualitative analyses was based on class observations (two classes per type) and subsequent teacher interviews. CS behaviour was analysed in relation to the particular teaching focus of the task at hand. Interviews included a stimulated recall technique using selected CS extracts to enrich insights from the teachers' perspective. The results showed a higher student response frequency as well as a longer mean utterance length in CS classes. Overall, codeswitches were systematically distributed across lesson stages and were closely related to changes in the teaching focus. These findings call for an optimal use of CS in instructed environments so as to maximise its benefits via a sensitive adjustment to specific pedagogic aims

A linguistic analysis of event conceptualisation processes in first and second language discourse: Evidence for language-specificity in the temporal discourse organisation of basic and advanced Czech and Hungarian learners of English

This dissertation examines conceptual reorganisation in second language learners by comparing event construal patterns in first language (L1) and second language (L2) discourse. Previous research suggests that the way grammatical aspect is encoded in the speaker's L1 can influence how events are conceptualised in their L2 (von Stutterheim & Carroll 2006). Given the lack of consensus regarding partial (Bylund 2011a) versus zero (Schmiedtová et al. 2011) susceptibility to reorganising L1 event construal patterns in L2, the present work contributes to this resonant discussion by investigating the extent to which language-specific grammatical aspectual operators influence message planning (Levelt 1989, Habel & Tappe 1999) in three typologically diverse L1 groups and four L2 groups. More specifically, film verbalisations and picture descriptions by Czech, Hungarian and English native speakers, and Czech and Hungarian learners of English at basic and advanced levels were elicited to test (a) whether crosslinguistic event construal contrasts are attributable to the differences in the grammatical means that are available for encoding temporality in a particular L1; (b) whether learners’ degree of susceptibility to reorganising L1 principles for temporal reference in the target language changes as a function of L2 proficiency; and (c) whether event construal patterns across groups remain unaffected by changes of modality (speech vs. writing) and task type. The main novel feature lies in testing L2 learners’ ability to adjust L1 thinking-for-speaking principles (Slobin 1996) in the target language through a systematic scrutiny of four conceptualisation processes abreast (i.e. event segmentation, information selection, temporal structuring and linearization).Cambridge European Trust, A. H. Lloyd Research Studentship Christ’s College Cambridge, Emily & Gordon Bottomley Award Christ’s College, Levy-Plumb Award Christ’s College, RCEAL Cambridge Research Grant, Cambridge Philosophical Society Gran

Changing Event Categorisation in Second Language Users Through Perceptual Learning

This study examines the impact of a second language on event phase categorisation. The aim is to test how strong a boost the L2 system provides when learners are trained to classify events in a new way. The linguistic contrast in focus is grammatical expression of change-of-state events in progress, available in English but far less so in Chinese. Advanced Chinese learners of English received categorisation training in four conditions: action-biased, completion-biased, verbally-distracted and with overt L2 encoding. Experiment 1 tested the extent to which event categorisation is facilitated by the learners’ native language. Experiment 2 compared learning success in L2-based categorisation with and without verbal interference. Experiment 3 measured the benefits of explicit verbalisation for L2-based category learning. The results show a graded impact of L2 grammar on learning success, ranging from the highest with overt verbalisation, followed by categorisation in silence, and the lowest, but not significantly reduced, in learning with verbal interference