Assessing exhibition swine as potential disseminators of infectious disease through the detection of five respiratory pathogens at agricultural exhibitions

International audienceAbstractWidespread geographic movement and extensive comingling of exhibition swine facilitates the spread and transmission of infectious pathogens. Nasal samples were collected from 2862 pigs at 102 exhibitions and tested for five pathogens. At least one pathogen was molecularly detected in pigs at 63 (61.8%) exhibitions. Influenza A virus was most prevalent and was detected in 498 (17.4%) samples. Influenza D virus was detected in two (0.07%) samples. More than one pathogen was detected in 165 (5.8%) samples. Influenza A virus remains a top threat to animal and human health, but other pathogens may be disseminated through the exhibition swine population

Low-Pathogenic Influenza A Viruses in North American Diving Ducks Contribute to the Emergence of a Novel Highly Pathogenic Influenza A(H7N8) Virus

Introductions of low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses of subtypes H5 and H7 into poultry from wild birds have the potential to mutate to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses, but such viruses’ origins are often unclear. In January 2016, a novel H7N8 HPAI virus caused an outbreak in turkeys in Indiana, USA. To determine the virus’s origin, we sequenced the genomes of 441 wild-bird origin influenza A viruses (IAVs) from North America and subjected them to evolutionary analyses. The results showed that the H7N8 LPAI virus most likely circulated among diving ducks in the Mississippi flyway during autumn 2015 and was subsequently introduced to Indiana turkeys, in which it evolved high pathogenicity. Preceding the outbreak, an isolate with six gene segments (PB2, PB1, PA, HA, NA, and NS) sharing \u3e99% sequence identity with those of H7N8 turkey isolates was recovered from a diving duck sampled in Kentucky, USA. H4N8 IAVs from other diving ducks possessed five H7N8-like gene segments (PB2, PB1, NA, MP, and NS; \u3e98% sequence identity). Our findings suggest that viral gene constellations circulating among diving ducks can contribute to the emergence of IAVs that affect poultry. Therefore, diving ducks may serve an important and understudied role in the maintenance, diversification, and transmission of IAVs in the wild-bird reservoir

Genetic evidence supports sporadic and independent introductions of subtype H5 low pathogenic avian influenza A viruses from wild birds to domestic poultry in North America

Wild-bird origin influenza A viruses (IAVs or avian influenza) have led to sporadic outbreaks among domestic poultry in the United States and Canada, resulting in economic losses through the implementation of costly containment practices and destruction of birds. We used evolutionary analyses of virus sequence data to determine that 78 H5 low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs) isolated from domestic poultry in the United States and Canada during 2001 to 2017 resulted from 18 independent virus introductions from wild birds. Within the wild-bird reservoir, the hemagglutinin gene segments of H5 LPAIVs exist primarily as two cocirculating genetic sublineages, and our findings suggest that the H5 gene segments flow within each migratory bird flyway and among adjacent flyways, with limited exchange between the nonadjacent Atlantic and Pacific Flyways. Phylogeographic analyses provided evidence that IAVs from dabbling ducks and swans/geese contributed to the emergence of viruses among domestic poultry. H5 LPAIVs isolated from commercial farm poultry (i.e., turkey) that were descended from a single introduction typically remained a single genotype, whereas those from live-bird markets sometimes led to multiple genotypes, reflecting the potential for reassortment with other IAVs circulating within live-bird markets. H5 LPAIVs introduced from wild birds to domestic poultry represent economic threats to the U.S. poultry industry, and our data suggest that such introductions have been sporadic, controlled effectively through production monitoring and a stamping-out policy, and are, therefore, unlikely to result in sustained detections in commercial poultry operations. IMPORTANCE Integration of viral genome sequencing into influenza surveillance for wild birds and domestic poultry can elucidate evolutionary pathways of economically costly poultry pathogens. Evolutionary analyses of H5 LPAIVs detected in domestic poultry in the United States and Canada during 2001 to 2017 suggest that these viruses originated from repeated introductions of IAVs from wild birds, followed by various degrees of reassortment. Reassortment was observed where biosecurity was low and where opportunities for more than one virus to circulate existed (e.g., congregations of birds from different premises, such as live-bird markets). None of the H5 lineages identified were maintained for the long term in domestic poultry, suggesting that management strategies have been effective in minimizing the impacts of virus introductions on U.S. poultry production

Antigenic Characterization of H3 Subtypes of Avian Influenza A Viruses from North America

Besides humans, H3 subtypes of influenza A viruses (IAVs) can infect various animal hosts, including avian, swine, equine, canine, and sea mammal species. These H3 viruses are both antigenically and genetically diverse. Here, we characterized the antigenic diversity of contemporary H3 avian IAVs recovered from migratory birds in North America. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays were performed on 37 H3 isolates of avian IAVs recovered from 2007 to 2011 using generated reference chicken sera. These isolates were recovered from samples taken in the Atlantic, Mississippi, Central, and Pacific waterfowl migration flyways. Antisera to all the tested H3 isolates cross-reacted with each other and, to a lesser extent, with those to H3 canine and H3 equine IAVs. Antigenic cartography showed that the largest antigenic distance among the 37 avian IAVs is about four units, and each unit corresponds to a 2 log 2 difference in the HI titer. However, none of the tested H3 IAVs cross-reacted with ferret sera derived from contemporary swine and human IAVs. Our results showed that the H3 avian IAVs we tested lacked significant antigenic diversity, and these viruses were antigenically different from those circulating in swine and human populations. This suggests that H3 avian IAVs in North American waterfowl are antigenically relatively stable. Además de infectar a los seres humanos, los subtipos H3 del virus de la influenza A (IAVs) pueden infectar a varios huéspedes animales, incluyendo aves, porcinos, equinos, caninos, y especies de mamíferos marinos. Estos virus H3 son tanto antigénica y genéticamente diversos. En este estudio, se caracterizó la diversidad antigénica de virus H3 contemporáneos recuperados de aves migratorias en América del Norte. Se realizaron pruebas de inhibición de la hemaglutinación (HI) en 37 H3 aislamientos de origen aviar recuperados de 2007 a 2011 usando sueros de pollo de referencia. Estos aislamientos fueron recuperados de las muestras tomadas de las rutas migratorias de aves acuáticas del Atlántico, Mississippi, Centro y del Pacífico. Los antisueros de todos los aislamientos H3 analizados mostraron reacciones cruzadas entre sí y en menor medida, con aquellos virus H3 de origen canino y equino. La cartografía antigénica demostró que la mayor distancia antigénica entre los 37 virus de este tipo de aves es de aproximadamente cuatro unidades, y cada unidad corresponde a una diferencia de dos logaritmos en el título de inhibición de la hemaglutinación. Sin embargo, ninguno de los virus H3 de este tipo mostró reacción cruzada con sueros de hurón específicos para virus de cerdos y humanos contemporáneos. Estos resultados mostraron que los virus H3 de origen aviar que se analizaron carecían de diversidad antigénica significativa y estos virus fueron antigénicamente diferentes de las que circulan en poblaciones de cerdos y de humanos. Esto sugiere que los virus H3 de aves acuáticas de América del Norte son relativamente estables antigénicamente

Accelerated evolution of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer

The zoonotic origin of the COVID-19 pandemic virus highlights the need to fill the vast gaps in our knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 ecology and evolution in non-human hosts. Here, we detected that SARS-CoV-2 was introduced from humans into white-tailed deer more than 30 times in Ohio, USA during November 2021-March 2022. Subsequently, deer-to-deer transmission persisted for 2–8 months, disseminating across hundreds of kilometers. Newly developed Bayesian phylogenetic methods quantified how SARS-CoV-2 evolution is not only three-times faster in white-tailed deer compared to the rate observed in humans but also driven by different mutational biases and selection pressures. The long-term effect of this accelerated evolutionary rate remains to be seen as no critical phenotypic changes were observed in our animal models using white-tailed deer origin viruses. Still, SARS-CoV-2 has transmitted in white-tailed deer populations for a relatively short duration, and the risk of future changes may have serious consequences for humans and livestock

The Evolutionary Genetics and Emergence of Avian Influenza Viruses in Wild Birds

We surveyed the genetic diversity among avian influenza virus (AIV) in wild birds, comprising 167 complete viral genomes from 14 bird species sampled in four locations across the United States. These isolates represented 29 type A influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtype combinations, with up to 26% of isolates showing evidence of mixed subtype infection. Through a phylogenetic analysis of the largest data set of AIV genomes compiled to date, we were able to document a remarkably high rate of genome reassortment, with no clear pattern of gene segment association and occasional inter-hemisphere gene segment migration and reassortment. From this, we propose that AIV in wild birds forms transient “genome constellations,” continually reshuffled by reassortment, in contrast to the spread of a limited number of stable genome constellations that characterizes the evolution of mammalian-adapted influenza A viruses

Subclinical Influenza Virus A Infections in Pigs Exhibited at Agricultural Fairs, Ohio, USA, 2009–2011

Agricultural fairs are associated with bidirectional, interspecies transmission of influenza virus A between humans and pigs. We examined pigs exhibited at agricultural fairs in Ohio during 2009–2011 for signs of influenza-like illness and collected nasal swab specimens from a representative subset of these animals. Influenza virus A was recovered from pigs at 12/53 (22.6%) fairs during the 3-year sampling period. Pigs at 10/12 (83.3%) fairs from which influenza virus A was recovered did not show signs of influenza-like illness. Hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, and matrix gene combinations of the isolates were consistent with influenza virus A concurrently circulating among swine herds in the United States. Subclinical influenza virus A infections in pigs at agricultural fairs may pose a risk to human health and create challenges for passive surveillance programs for influenza virus A in swine herds

Environmental surfaces used in entry-day corralling likely contribute to the spread of influenza A virus in swine at agricultural fairs

Emerging Microbes & Infections (2017) 6, e10; doi:10.1038/emi.2016.138; published online 22 February 201

Inactivation of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus using heated water

Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is a very contagious swine pathogen that spreads easily via the fecal-oral route, notably from contaminated fomites. The present study investigated heated water as a method for rapid thermal inactivation of PEDV. Cell-culture adapted PEDV was treated with water at varying temperatures and viral titers were measured at multiple time points post-treatment. Viable PEDV was not recovered after a ten second or longer treatment with water heated to ≥76 °C; however, PEDV nucleic acid was detected in all samples regardless of treatment. Hot water decontamination could be considered in settings where chemical disinfection is impractical