Conservation efforts of Kihansi spray toad Nectophrynoides asperginis: its discovery, captive breeding, extinction in the wild and re-introduction

Species conservation depends on the initiatives to restore or retain and sustainably use the environment in which the species live. This paper highlights how development projects can affect biodiversity conservation and the challenges in achieving sustainable development. The paper discusses a case study of the Kihansi Spray Toad (KST) (Nectophrynoides asperginis) from its discovery, extinction in the wild, captive breeding and subsequent reintroduction to its native habitat; focusing on events, challenges, approaches in addressing issues, future prospects and achievements in the conservation of this endemic species. There has been considerable success in KST husbandry in captivity and reintroduction trials of the toad to the wild while concurrently the operations of the hydropower plant and the catchment ecosystem services have continued to provide electricity for domestic & industrial development and support human livelihoods respectively. The paper underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approach in addressing conservation problems and the need for serious commitment of participating parties, but also on the need to balance conservation with sustainable development.Key words: Kihansi spray toad, extinction, reintroduction

Management and Population Status of Kihansi Spray Toad Nectophrynoides asperginis in Captive Breeding Facilities in Tanzania

Kihansi spray toad Nectophrynoides asperginis was discovered in 1996 in Kihansi gorge. The toad was declared extinct in the wild in 2009 due to habitat alteration. Before its extinction, 499 individuals were flown to the United States of America zoos in 2000 for captive breeding. In 2010, the University of Dar es Salaam, and in 2011 the Kihansi captive breeding facilities were established in Tanzania. The intention was to breed, and reintroduce the toad back to the natural environment in the gorge. The founder populations for the two facilities were sourced from the USA zoos. This study addresses captive management practices, and population status of the toad at the two facilities from 2013 to 2019. Toad counts were carried out once every two months. There was a significant increase in the number of toads over the years. The increase was associated with suitable management practices. Success in captive breeding at the facilities led to the removal of 3,236 individuals from the University for restocking the Kihansi facility and for reintroduction, and 1,273 individuals from Kihansi facility for reintroduction. The establishment of the two facilities played a major role in both the ex-situ and in-situ conservation of the toadKeywords: Kihansi spray toad; extinction; captive breeding; population; reintroduction

Evaluation of rifampicin resistance and 81-bp rifampicin resistant determinant region of rpoB gene mutations of Mycobacterium tuberculosis detected with XpertMTB/Rif in Cross River State, Nigeria

AbstractObjective/backgroundWorld Health Organization tuberculosis (TB) indices from 2014 to 2016 showed that Nigeria had the 6th highest prevalence, 4th highest incidence, and the highest mortality rate globally. In efforts to improve TB care, the XpertMTB/Rif (GeneXpert) technology, Cepheid, Sunnyvale, California, USA, which has revolutionized TB detection with concomitant rifampicin-resistance molecular detection, was introduced in Cross River State, South–South Nigeria, in 2014. The GeneXpert uses molecular beacons to detect five overlapping 81-bp regions in the rpoB gene known as the Rifampicin Resistant Determinant Region (RRDR). These probes are represented as Probe A (507–511), Probe B (512–518), Probe C (518–523), Probe D (523–529), and Probe E (529–533). Mutations in this region have been shown to account for about 93% of resistance to rifampicin, which is the most important drug in tuberculosis treatment. The objective of this study was to determine the frequency of rifampicin resistance and the commonly associated probes for various rpoB gene mutations within the 81-bp RRDR of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Cross River State, Nigeria.MethodWe collated and analyzed data from the 10 Xpert MTB/Rif sites in Cross River State from June 2014 to June 2016 and determined the frequency of mutations associated with different probes designated A–E, which represent the RRDR of rpoB gene. All centers use XpertMTB/Rif version G4.ResultIn total, 973 tuberculosis cases were detected from 4671 cases tested. Rif resistance was detected in 6.0% (58/973) of cases. Probe E mutations were the most common, seen in 60.3% (35/58); followed by Probe D, 17.2% (10/58); and Probe B, 13.8% (8/58). Probe A occurred in 3.4% (2/58). No Probe C mutation was seen. Multiple mutation combinations involving probes B and D occurred in 3.4% (2/58), while one isolate had triple site mutations involving A, D, and E. One isolate that at initial testing showed a Probe A mutation displayed a Probe D mutation when tested in another site prior to treatment enrollment.ConclusionIn our setting, 6.0% of tuberculosis isolates are rifampicin resistant. Mutations associated with probe E commonly due to codon 531 are the most predominant cause of rifampicin resistance. Mutations at probe C (codons 518–523) were uncommon. A change in mutation may have occurred in one of the patients