Impact of land restitution benefits on Water, Energy and Food (WEF) misgovernance and social injustice

Land restitution has been used to achieve redistributive justice. However, such social justice has been compromised by the misgovernance of water, energy, and food (WEF) which has resulted in distributive injustices and compromised welfare outcomes. The objective of the study was to ascertain the land restitution benefactor impacts on WEF misgovernance in lieu of offsetting social injustice. The study was carried out in Matatiele, Magareng and Greater Taung Local Municipalities in South Africa. A purposively selected sample of 1184 households was obtained through a cross-sectional survey using a semi-structured questionnaire. Vulnerability indices, independent sample t-tests and Propensity Score Matching were used to analyze the data. The results showed that land restitution beneficiaries were vulnerable to WEF misgovernance relative to social injustice. In addition, becoming a land restitution benefactor had a significant impact and increased the level of vulnerability to WEF misgovernance. This was mainly through increased exposure and sensitivity to WEF misgovernance. Benefiting from land restitution did not have an impact on vulnerability to WEF social injustice, even though exposure and adaptive capacity to social injustice were increased. The study concludes that benefiting from land restitution increased vulnerability to WEF misgovernance while having no impact on social injustice. The study recommends improving access and fixing dilapidated WEF infrastructure in land-restituted areas. Furthermore, there is a need to implement livelihood-improving programs in addition to social protection support to enhance access to WEF resources. Water, energy, and food (WEF) decision-making should be decentralized to improve participation, governance, and procedural justice

Takes more than two to tango: Intrahousehold food system agency and its intricacies in South Africa

Intra-household food system agency is affected by individual physiology, environmental diversity, variations in social conditions, relational perspectives and distribution within families, resulting in differing capabilities and functionings which have a bearing on welfare. The study used the capability approach to assess intrahousehold food system agency, its determinants and welfare impact, taking a cross-sectional survey of 1184 households from three heterogenous study sites in South Africa. Poisson count regression, Propensity Score Matching and Monte Carlo Simulations were used in the study. Duration of stay within the community, tenure, employment status and household size were significant in the number of intrahousehold food system decisions made by female heads and none-nuclear family members, with however overall reduction in number of decisions made. Yet, when female heads showed agency in agricultural production and food expenditure, food security improved by 5 % and 6 %, respectively. On the other hand, it is reduced by between 4 % and 5 % for none-nuclear family members. Duration of stay in the community and age of household head had the highest contribution to agency variation. In conclusion, there are varied intrahousehold food system decisions made by various members of the households, resulting in varying degrees of food security. In addition, variations in the socio-economic factors of the households result in varied agency, especially for female household heads and other none-nuclear family members. Female-head intrahousehold food system agency should be promoted in lieu of their positive impact on food security, and their reduced decision-making capacity in hindsight

Effectiveness of the indigent support policy on food insecurity in South Africa: Experiences from Matatiele Local Municipality

The indigent and societally vulnerable have compromised capacities to achieve their full welfare potential. This necessitates polices that can cushion them, such as the indigent support policy in South Africa. However, there is little acknowledgement on the welfare effects of community and contextually derived support policies. The study seeks an understanding of the effectiveness of the indigent support policy on food insecurity in Matatiele Local Municipality, South Africa, using a cross sectional survey of a purposively selected sample of 549 households. Food insecurity, determinants of awareness and beneficiation as well as effectiveness from the policy are assessed through the Household Food In-Access Scale (HFIAS), Heckman two step model and Propensity Score Matching (PSM), respectively. Households are found to be food secure, with awareness and beneficiation from the indigent policy being affected by duration of stay, employment status, location, tenure, total monthly income, monthly food expenditure and food insecurity status. To add, the indigent support policy has a positive impact on food security. In conclusion, there is food security partly due to indigent support with beneficiation affected by various socio-economic factors. There is need to compliment indigent support products to include food products and promote the policy to increase awareness. Furthermore, there is need to capacitate and coordinate policy making to target food insecure households to augment and magnify the positive effects of indigent support

Evaluating Livestock Development Programmes through the Production Risk Interface: Case of the Kaonafatso ya Dikgomo (KyD) Scheme in South Africa

Livestock is significant in the livelihoods of the rural poor, providing a plethora of benefits. Livestock Development Programmes (LDPs) can transform smallholder farmers’ production for increased production and poverty reduction. The Kaonafatso ya Dikgomo (KyD) Scheme is a LDP implemented in South Africa with the aim of assisting smallholder farmers to attain economic and sustainable beef production. The literature shows that most evaluations of LDPs have been quantitative based on measurable and quantifiable metrics. Furthermore, various socio-economic and institutional factors have a bearing on the decision to participate in LDPs and eventually adopting the practices. Impact assessments of LDPs have been devoid of risk consideration as well as ascertaining how risk introduced by participating in LDPs has impacted productivity. The overall objective of the study was therefore to evaluate LDPs, focussing on benefits, participation and risk. The specific objectives of the study entailed developing a conceptual tool for measuring the qualitative and secondary benefits. Secondly, it was to determine factors influencing participation decisions in the KyD Scheme. Thirdly, the study sought to measure and compare calving rate and off-take rate risk between KyD Scheme participants and non-participants. Lastly, the study highlighted the variability (risk) introduced by participating in a LDP and its impact on production. The study utilised a cross-sectional survey of KyD Scheme participants and nonparticipants in KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo and Eastern Cape Provinces of South Africa. Non-probability convenience sampling method was utilised in selecting a sample of 164 KyD Scheme participants and 81 non-participants. A semi-structured questionnaire was the data collection tool utilised. A conceptual “Livelihood Effect Benefit Index”; Probit, Tobit and Ordered Probit models; Just and Pope Production function; Propensity Score Matching; and Monte Carlo Simulations were utilised to analyse data. Statistical Package for Social Scientists version 24, STATA 13 and @Risk Decision Tool were the analytical packages utilised in analysing the data. The study found that the Scheme provided low qualitative benefits, mainly through social capital. Furthermore, socio-economic and institutional factors have significant impact on the decision to participate in the Scheme, extent of participation and decision to continue practicing Scheme experiences. In comparing the two groups of Scheme and Scheme non-participants, calving and off-take risk for KyD Scheme participants was lower than that of Scheme non-participants. In comparing individuals with similar characteristics between the two groups, Scheme participants reduced calving risk whilst increasing the off-take risk. Page | vi The study concluded that the Scheme exhibited low qualitative benefits. Furthermore, the decisions to participate and the extent of participation in the KyD Scheme were influenced by various socio-economic and institutional factors, which were however more favourable to resource endowed smallholder farmers. In addition, the Scheme had significant impact on production risk. The risk reducing determinants appeared to also favour more resource endowed smallholder farmers who had more farming experience. The study’s recommendations were subdivided into short term, medium term and long term. The short term recommendations included targeting farmers within a distance of between 30km and 90km from a formal market, promoting dipping services-based training and extension, and providing information and training concerning calving i.e. animal health, husbandry and breed selection for herd maximization. Participation in the Scheme and the extent of participation can be improved through enhancing awareness of the Scheme at various points where stock feed are available to farmers. Furthermore, enhanced cooperation with extension workers provides a conduit in improving awareness of the Scheme and enhancing participation. The medium term recommendations pertained to initiatives such as promoting other livelihood options to enhance benefits of the programme, and promoting social capital enhancing initiatives such as mentoring and providing social capital objectives that can be integrated into the overall livestock sector strategy. The long-term recommendations include initiatives such as subsidizing increase in herd size to between 50 and 120 cattle, maintaining a monthly frequency of farmer-extension contact of between 2 and 5 times per month, as well as incorporating calving and off-take risk in policy formulation, implementation and evaluatio

Implications of land restitution as a Transformative Social Policy for Water-Energy-Food (WEF) insecurity in Magareng Local Municipality, South Africa

The objective of the study was to assess the impact of land restitution policy on water, energy, and food insecurity in South Africa. The study utilised a cross-sectional survey of 1 184 households from Matatiele, Greater Taung and Magareng Local Municipalities. The Household Water Insecurity Experience, Multidimensional Energy Poverty Index and Household Food In-access Scale were used to analyse water, energy, and food insecurity, respectively, while Propensity Score Matching was used to assess the impact of benefiting from land restitution on insecurities in these resources. The results of the study indicate that beneficiaries of land restitution were relatively more water secure but were however somehow food secure and energy insecure. Furthermore, educational levels, tenure, employment status, household size, gender and main source of income were significant determinants of becoming a beneficiary of land restitution as well as the water, energy, and food insecurities. In addition, benefiting from land restitution increased water and energy insecurities by 15.0% and 24.2%, respectively, while reducing food insecurity by 10.1%. The study concludes that land restitution has improved the food security status of the beneficiaries while it has reduced their water and energy securities. The study recommends augmenting the indigent policy supplementing poor households with free water and energy to improve securities, especially for land restitution beneficiaries. Promotion of renewable energy such as solar, which can provide a nexus in energy for water supply can aid in improving localised water and energy securities for land restitution beneficiaries

Determinants of Informal Land Renting Decisions by A1 and A2 Farmers in Mashonaland East Province of Zimbabwe

Land rental markets are critical in developing economies as they contribute to efficiency, equity and welfare gains to farmers involved under conditions of low transaction costs. Despite lack of policy consistency in Zimbabwe, A1 and A2 farmers have been involved in these land rental markets, albeit in an informal manner. This study sought to establish the determinants of farmers’ decision to take part in these informal markets. A survey was carried out in Mashonaland East province with a sample of 339 households selected through multi-stage sampling methods and data analysed using a bi-variate Tobit model. Results showed that combined together, the proportion of farmers involved in informal land rental markets are as much as those not participating. Determinants of renting-in were identified as gender, household income, permanent labour, cultivated area, tenure certainty, irrigable land size and crop diversification. Factors affecting renting-out decisions were age, permanent labour, irrigable land size and crop diversification and these results are not in any way different from findings from previous studies. The conclusion was that household characteristics and land endowments factors were strong in decisions to rent-in land while land endowments factors were dominant in decisions to rent-out land. Any future considerations for formalising land rental markets should consider these important factors having a bearing on land rental decisions

Labour Dynamics in Climate and Techno Reliant Small Scale Maize Production

 Adoption of improved technology tends to recalibrate labour use in agricultural production. The study examined how the adoption of various maize varieties impacted labour use in smallholder production. The study utilised a structured pre-coded questionnaire-based survey of 487 smallholder maize farmers in South Africa. The purposive sample was obtained from Ingquza Hill and Port St John’s Local Municipalities in the Eastern Cape Province. A multinomial regression model and Monte Carlo Simulation were utilised to analyse the data. Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) version 23 as well as Excel were the statistical tools utilised. Through multinomial regression analysis, the study found that weeding labour was the most significantly affected by a change in maize variety. It was observed that as maize variety transcends in use from Landrace to GMO, improved OPV and conventional hybrid, ploughing and weeding hours tend to decrease. The harvesting, storage and shelling hours tend to increase. Utilising the Monte Carlo Simulation, the study also found an increased impact of maize variety utilisation on harvesting as well as on shelling and storage labour hours.  The study recommends that varieties be promoted taking cognizance of the labour dynamics to tier maximize suitability and labour-based productivity, reducing tedious labour use in ploughing and weeding, whilst promoting employment in harvesting, shelling and storage

Marketing mix strategy determinants in pork-based agri-businesses: Experiences from Zimbabwe

Orientation: Agri-businesses, especially at the farmer level, are devoid of sound marketing strategy. Research purpose: This study aimed to highlight the marketing mix elements most considered by pork-based agri-businesses. Motivation for the study: Zimbabwe underwent institutional transformation policies of land reform and indigenisation policies. New industry players came to the fore. However, they were devoid of sound business background. Research design, approach and method: The study utilised a questionnaire in a cross-sectional survey of 166 pig farmers, 6 pork processors and 24 pork butchers in Mashonaland Central province. Descriptive statistics, logistic regression and multiple linear regression were used to analyse the data. Main findings: Product, promotion, price and partnership were considered. Category of agri-business, distance the furthest buyer travelled, the merchandise handled and frequency of abattoir or processor buyers determined marketing mix strategy. Perceptive performance of the agri-businesses in terms of marketing mix strategy was determined by category of agri-business, merchandise consideration, frequency of abattoir or processor buyer, seasonality of sales and time of consideration when selling; agri-business location and the experience of the agri-business. Practical/managerial implications: The study concluded with the myopic use of marketing mix based strategies in the Zimbabwean agri-businesses, targeting product-based characteristics, with varying determinants. There is opportunity to strategically position where place, promotion and pricing advantages exist. Contribution/value-add: The study added to insights for marketing managers, especially in a structural transformation situation, what marketing strategies are mostly utilised. This tends to avail shortfalls and opportunities that can be taken advantage of, to strategically position pork agri-businesses in Zimbabwe

Determinants of pricing objectives and price flexibility policies of pork-based agro-businesses in Mashonaland Central province, Zimbabwe

Background: The article focuses on the pricing strategies that are used in a dynamic institutional environment of land reform and indigenisation policies. Zimbabwe underwent a land reform incorporating new players in the pork agribusinesses, as well as indigenisation, altering agro-business decision-making structures. One such decision is effective pricing.   Aim: The objective of the study was to highlight the determinants of utilising a particular pricing objective and price flexibility policy in the Zimbabwean pork industry.   Setting: The study examined the pricing objectives and price flexibility policies of pig producers, pork abattoirs and butcheries in Mashonaland Central province, Zimbabwe.   Methods: The study used a cross-sectional, descriptive and quantitative survey of pig producers, pork abattoirs and pork butcheries. A structured precoded questionnaire-based interview of 166 pig producers, 6 pork abattoirs and 24 butchers was used as the data collection tool and method. A logit model was used for analysis, ascertaining determinants of a binary choice model.   Results: The study found that agribusinesses’ pricing objectives were determined by the product portfolio, margin, merchandise handled, distance the furthest buyer travels and consideration of other industry players’ pricing at the p < 0.01 level. Furthermore, factors such as seasonality in April to September sales, quality considerations (p < 0.05), frequency of retailers and size considerations (p < 0.1) were also significant determinants of pricing objectives. Also, the agribusinesses’ price flexibility policies were shown to be determined by agribusiness location, average weight of merchandise, frequency of individual customers, size consideration and consideration of other industry players’ pricing at the p < 0.01 level. In addition, margin, frequency of abattoir buyers (p < 0.05) as well as pork product portfolio (p < 0.1) were also observed to be major factors towards a flexible pricing policy.   Conclusion: The results suggest that pork industry players in Zimbabwe are myopic in their pricing strategies, having factors such as product portfolio, margin, merchandise handled and considerations of other industry players’ strategies as dualistically determining pricing objective and price flexibility policy utilised. The study recommends that pork industry players shift from myopic pricing objectives of profit and survival and devise new pricing strategies based on sales and competitive pricing. There is also need for less rigidity in flexible price policies to take advantage of the dynamic external environment

Benefits of an Irrigation Scheme and Its Determinants to Surrounding Peripheral Rural Communities

The objective of the study was to identify the extent of benefits and their determinants to communities surrounding the Qamata Irrigation Scheme (QIS) in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The study used a quantitative based cross-sectional survey of 197 households within a radius of 20 km from the QIS. Multiple sampling methods were utilized where the villages were randomly and the households conveniently selected. A semi-structured pre-coded questionnaire was utilized to collect the data which was analyzed using descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression. The study identified 14 discriminant benefits ranging from job opportunities, income increment food diversification to share cropping. Sixty-two percent of the households identified less than 5 benefits, whilst 27% and 11% identified 6-10 and 11-14 benefits respectively. Determinants of a surrounding household to attain benefits were significantly influenced by the distance from the scheme, the main source of income and gender of household head (P&lt;0.01); marital and employment status (P&lt;0.05); and access to farm land (P&lt;0.1). The study concludes that the level of benefit diffused to surrounding households is based on socio-economic factors. The study recommends conscientization of surrounding communities on the peripheral benefits accrued from the proximity to the QIS, achievable through awareness initiatives