A survey of the farming systems of Vertisol areas of the Ethiopian highlands

In 1986, ILCA carried out informal surveys at Dogollo and Inewari in order to understand the farming systems. Such surveys were also conducted by the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) at Ginchi in 1986 and by the Alemaya University of Agriculture at Ada/Debre Zeit in 1988/89. This was followed by one-time detailed formal farm surveys at Dogollo, Inewari and Ginchi in 1988/89. This chapter mostly presents the results of these formal surveys. The objectives of the surveys were to understand the existing farming systems in order to develop appropriate Vertisol technologies, to identify production constraints and opportunities for technological interventions, to identify recommendation domain, and to compile baseline data in order to assist in ex-post Vertisol - technology evaluation. Natural resources, farm resources, crop and livestock interaction, feed production and livestock feeding, constraints to production, livestock production constraints and researchable areas are examined

Technology validation and transfer

As farming in Ethiopia is heavily dependent on animal traction, technologies that are based on this power source were envisaged to be appropriate for better management of Vertisols. Hence, the Joint Vertisol Project (JVP) began research on improved Vertisol technology that included 1) the use of an animal-drawn broadbed maker (BBM) to facilitate surface drainage and 2) the use of appropriate seeds, fertiliser and early planting. The aim of the technology verification and transfer were to verify the economic viability and acceptability of the BBM/Vertisol technology package and to popularies the technology so as to encourage large-scale adoption. A comparison of economic returns from crop grown with Vertisol technology package and traditional methods in selected Ethiopian highlands

A Method for Semi-quantitative Assessment of Exposure to Pesticides of Applicators and Re-entry Workers : An Application in Three Farming Systems in Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE: To develop an inexpensive and easily adaptable semi-quantitative exposure assessment method to characterize exposure to pesticide in applicators and re-entry farmers and farm workers in Ethiopia. METHODS: Two specific semi-quantitative exposure algorithms for pesticides applicators and re-entry workers were developed and applied to 601 farm workers employed in 3 distinctly different farming systems [small-scale irrigated, large-scale greenhouses (LSGH), and large-scale open (LSO)] in Ethiopia. The algorithm for applicators was based on exposure-modifying factors including application methods, farm layout (open or closed), pesticide mixing conditions, cleaning of spraying equipment, intensity of pesticide application per day, utilization of personal protective equipment (PPE), personal hygienic behavior, annual frequency of application, and duration of employment at the farm. The algorithm for re-entry work was based on an expert-based re-entry exposure intensity score, utilization of PPE, personal hygienic behavior, annual frequency of re-entry work, and duration of employment at the farm. RESULTS: The algorithms allowed estimation of daily, annual and cumulative lifetime exposure for applicators, and re-entry workers by farming system, by gender, and by age group. For all metrics, highest exposures occurred in LSGH for both applicators and female re-entry workers. For male re-entry workers, highest cumulative exposure occurred in LSO farms. Female re-entry workers appeared to be higher exposed on a daily or annual basis than male re-entry workers, but their cumulative exposures were similar due to the fact that on average males had longer tenure. Factors related to intensity of exposure (like application method and farm layout) were indicated as the main driving factors for estimated potential exposure. Use of personal protection, hygienic behavior, and duration of employment in surveyed farm workers contributed less to the contrast in exposure estimates. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that farmers' and farm workers' exposure to pesticides can be inexpensively characterized, ranked, and classified. Our method could be extended to assess exposure to specific active ingredients provided that detailed information on pesticides used is available. The resulting exposure estimates will consequently be used in occupational epidemiology studies in Ethiopia and other similar countries with few resources

Neurobehavioural symptoms and acute pesticide poisoning: a cross-sectional study among male pesticide applicators selected from three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE To estimate prevalence of acute pesticide poisoning (APP) and its association with neurobehavioural symptoms in Ethiopian pesticide applicators. METHODS We performed a cross-sectional survey among 256 pesticide applicators from small-scale irrigated farms, a large-scale open farm and large-scale greenhouses. APP was ascertained using a modified WHO case definition, and neurobehavioural symptoms were collected with a standardised questionnaire (Q16). Exposure to pesticides was estimated using detailed exposure algorithms specifically developed for Ethiopian farms. Multiple logistic regression models were used to estimate risk of APP and its association with neurobehavioural symptoms. RESULTS Overall APP prevalence was 16%. Working as an applicator in greenhouses was strongly associated with APP (OR 3.00, 95% CI 1.38 to 6.54). Estimated annual pesticide exposure was also associated with APP (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.20). Longer duration of employment appeared to be negatively associated with APP. Having had an APP was strongly associated with reporting more neurobehavioural symptoms (OR 2.15, 95% CI 1.01 to 4.58) independent of cumulative pesticide exposure. Cumulative exposure to pesticides appeared to be associated with neurobehavioural symptoms among applicators without and with APP. CONCLUSIONS We showed a substantial prevalence of APP that differed between farming systems and was strongly associated with neurobehavioural symptoms. Intensity of exposure was also clearly associated with these symptoms. Reduction and control of occupational exposure to pesticides is urgently needed in Ethiopia

Neurobehavioural symptoms and acute pesticide poisoning : a cross-sectional study among male pesticide applicators selected from three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE To estimate prevalence of acute pesticide poisoning (APP) and its association with neurobehavioural symptoms in Ethiopian pesticide applicators. METHODS We performed a cross-sectional survey among 256 pesticide applicators from small-scale irrigated farms, a large-scale open farm and large-scale greenhouses. APP was ascertained using a modified WHO case definition, and neurobehavioural symptoms were collected with a standardised questionnaire (Q16). Exposure to pesticides was estimated using detailed exposure algorithms specifically developed for Ethiopian farms. Multiple logistic regression models were used to estimate risk of APP and its association with neurobehavioural symptoms. RESULTS Overall APP prevalence was 16%. Working as an applicator in greenhouses was strongly associated with APP (OR 3.00, 95% CI 1.38 to 6.54). Estimated annual pesticide exposure was also associated with APP (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.20). Longer duration of employment appeared to be negatively associated with APP. Having had an APP was strongly associated with reporting more neurobehavioural symptoms (OR 2.15, 95% CI 1.01 to 4.58) independent of cumulative pesticide exposure. Cumulative exposure to pesticides appeared to be associated with neurobehavioural symptoms among applicators without and with APP. CONCLUSIONS We showed a substantial prevalence of APP that differed between farming systems and was strongly associated with neurobehavioural symptoms. Intensity of exposure was also clearly associated with these symptoms. Reduction and control of occupational exposure to pesticides is urgently needed in Ethiopia

A Method for Semi-quantitative Assessment of Exposure to Pesticides of Applicators and Re-entry Workers: An Application in Three Farming Systems in Ethiopia

OBJECTIVE: To develop an inexpensive and easily adaptable semi-quantitative exposure assessment method to characterize exposure to pesticide in applicators and re-entry farmers and farm workers in Ethiopia. METHODS: Two specific semi-quantitative exposure algorithms for pesticides applicators and re-entry workers were developed and applied to 601 farm workers employed in 3 distinctly different farming systems [small-scale irrigated, large-scale greenhouses (LSGH), and large-scale open (LSO)] in Ethiopia. The algorithm for applicators was based on exposure-modifying factors including application methods, farm layout (open or closed), pesticide mixing conditions, cleaning of spraying equipment, intensity of pesticide application per day, utilization of personal protective equipment (PPE), personal hygienic behavior, annual frequency of application, and duration of employment at the farm. The algorithm for re-entry work was based on an expert-based re-entry exposure intensity score, utilization of PPE, personal hygienic behavior, annual frequency of re-entry work, and duration of employment at the farm. RESULTS: The algorithms allowed estimation of daily, annual and cumulative lifetime exposure for applicators, and re-entry workers by farming system, by gender, and by age group. For all metrics, highest exposures occurred in LSGH for both applicators and female re-entry workers. For male re-entry workers, highest cumulative exposure occurred in LSO farms. Female re-entry workers appeared to be higher exposed on a daily or annual basis than male re-entry workers, but their cumulative exposures were similar due to the fact that on average males had longer tenure. Factors related to intensity of exposure (like application method and farm layout) were indicated as the main driving factors for estimated potential exposure. Use of personal protection, hygienic behavior, and duration of employment in surveyed farm workers contributed less to the contrast in exposure estimates. CONCLUSIONS: This study indicated that farmers' and farm workers' exposure to pesticides can be inexpensively characterized, ranked, and classified. Our method could be extended to assess exposure to specific active ingredients provided that detailed information on pesticides used is available. The resulting exposure estimates will consequently be used in occupational epidemiology studies in Ethiopia and other similar countries with few resources

Occupational pesticide exposure and respiratory health: a large-scale cross-sectional study in three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia.

RATIONALE In the last decade, due to expansion of greenhouses and irrigated farms, the use of pesticides in Ethiopia has increased 6-13-fold leading to potential health risks. OBJECTIVE To investigate if occupational exposure to pesticides is associated with respiratory health effects in farmers and farm workers from commercial farming systems. METHODS We performed two cross-sectional surveys comprising different farming systems. In the first survey we studied respiratory symptoms among 1104 subjects of which 601 were occupationally exposed to pesticides (ie, 256 pesticide applicators, 345 re-entry workers) and 503 unexposed individuals. The second survey, carried out 2 years later in the same farming regions, additionally included lung function measurement and comprised a total of 387 study subjects of which 206 were occupationally exposed to pesticides (142 applicators and 64 re-entry workers) and 180 unexposed individuals. RESULTS We observed increased risks for chronic cough and shortness of breath (OR=3.15, 95% CI 1.56 to 6.36 and OR=6.67, 95% CI 2.60 to 17.58) among the exposed subjects as compared with unexposed individuals in the first survey. These results were corroborated in the second survey where we also observed reductions in FEV1 (140 mL), forced expiratory flow 25%-75% (550 mL/s) and risk of FEV1/FVC rati

INFLUENCE OF RESETTLEMENT ON PASTORAL LAND USE AND LOCAL LIVELIHOODS IN SOUTHWEST ETHIOPIA

This study was conducted in southwest Ethiopia with the aim of understanding the influence of resettlement on pastoral land use. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussion. Respondents in non-resettled kebele reported that livestock keeping was the main source of their livelihoods. Our results showed that resettlement accelerated crop cultivation and contributed to shifts in land use due to the expansion of crop farming. Respondents mentioned that the condition of grazing resources and livestock economy were adversely affected. The community further claimed that ownership right and changes in resource use were additional deriving forces of conflict over resources. It was also indicated that the deteriorating condition of rangelands linked to resettlement greatly undermined local livelihoods and land tenure security. Recognizing the livelihood strategy of pastoral communalities and tenure security could improve sustainable use of natural resources and conservation of biodiversity. We suggest active participation of the local community to minimize the negative impacts of resettlement on the host community, while implementing resettlement as a strategy to secure food self sufficiency. A robust understanding in planning and implementation of resettlement is needed in consolidating concerns of the host community for minimizing conflict and securing land tenure

Occupational pesticide exposure and respiratory health: a large-scale cross-sectional study in three commercial farming systems in Ethiopia.

RATIONALE In the last decade, due to expansion of greenhouses and irrigated farms, the use of pesticides in Ethiopia has increased 6-13-fold leading to potential health risks. OBJECTIVE To investigate if occupational exposure to pesticides is associated with respiratory health effects in farmers and farm workers from commercial farming systems. METHODS We performed two cross-sectional surveys comprising different farming systems. In the first survey we studied respiratory symptoms among 1104 subjects of which 601 were occupationally exposed to pesticides (ie, 256 pesticide applicators, 345 re-entry workers) and 503 unexposed individuals. The second survey, carried out 2 years later in the same farming regions, additionally included lung function measurement and comprised a total of 387 study subjects of which 206 were occupationally exposed to pesticides (142 applicators and 64 re-entry workers) and 180 unexposed individuals. RESULTS We observed increased risks for chronic cough and shortness of breath (OR=3.15, 95% CI 1.56 to 6.36 and OR=6.67, 95% CI 2.60 to 17.58) among the exposed subjects as compared with unexposed individuals in the first survey. These results were corroborated in the second survey where we also observed reductions in FEV1 (140 mL), forced expiratory flow 25%-75% (550 mL/s) and risk of FEV1/FVC rati