Serotyping and antimicrobial resistance patterns of Salmonella from pork outlets in Kampala

This study was done as part of the Safe Food, Fair Food project of the International Livestock Research Institute. The study followed two earlier studies; the first one by Kung et al who mapped all pork joints (small to medium size restaurants selling mainly ready to eat pork and raw pork prepared at home) in Kampala district and his study was followed by Martin Heilmann's study which studied food hygiene in pork restaurants in Kampala using Salmonella as an indicator pathogen. This study is a follow up study of the isolated salmonella to determinethe serotypes of salmonella isolates, the antimicrobial susceptibility pattern and presence of shared plasmid. A total 674 samples were collected from 77 pork restaurants mapped by Kungu et al, of these 55 (8%) were confirmed as Salmonella Enterica subspecies Enterica according to ISO 6579 by Martin et al. The 55 isolates were in this study serotyped using biochemical characterization and later using O and H antigen antisera’s. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was done by disc diffusion method according to Kirby buer utilizing 22 antibiotic antibiotic discs and plasmid profile analysis was done using Incompatibility typing method according to Carrotelli et al. Seven different serovars were identified: S Enterica. Enteritidis S.Enterica Offa. Arechavaleta, S. Gallinarum , S. Zanzibar , S. Kampala, and S. Saintpaul . Multidrug resistance (resistance to more than one antibiotic) was found in 54/55 (98%) in the strains collected. Six incompatibility plasmid profile groups (FIA, W, FIC, FIB, P, and Y) were identified in 54/55 98.2% of the samples. Seven Salmonella serovars (Enteritidis, Gallinarum, Arechavaleta, Zanzibar, Kampala, and Saintpaul) were identified in this study, majority of them were resistant to more than one antibiotics. A total of 6 shared plasmids were identified among the 55 Salmonella Enterica

Occurrence of Salmonella spp. in flies and foodstuff from pork butcheries in Kampala, Uganda

Food-borne diseases such as salmonellosis are a major cause of human gastroenteritis worldwide, especially in the developing world due to poor sanitary conditions. Flies feed on food and breed in feces and other organic material. As such they are known vectors of Salmonella spp. Given that pork consumption in Uganda is rapidly increasing while good food safety practices remain absent, this study aims to assess the occurrence of Salmonella spp. in pork butcheries as a contribution to improve hygiene. Seventy-seven pork butcheries out of 179 mapped in a previous survey in Kampala were randomly selected. From June–October 2014, samples of house flies, foodstuff and equipment were collected from all butcheries. Cultural isolation of Salmonella spp. was performed according to ISO 6579:2002. Among 693 samples, 64 (9%) tested positive for Salmonella enteritidis. Among the positives, 32% were samples of raw pork (25), 25% flies’ midguts (19), less than 9% water (7), tomatoes (6), cabbage (4), onions (2) and one case on roasted pork1, respectively. Positive flies coincided with contaminated foodstuff in 29% of the butcheries. All 154 samples from either butchers’ hands or their equipment were negative for Salmonella spp. The prevalence of S. enteritidis, especially on raw pork and in flies, illustrates the need for improving food safety in pork butcheries. Further research is required clarifying the gaps; especially the role of flies as microbiological carriers. In this context investigations are ongoing to identify Salmonella serotypes and their antimicrobial drug-resistance situation. However, these findings merit increased attention and can be used to improve knowledge, attitudes and practices amongst butchers. The research was carried out with the financial support of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), Germany, and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health, led by the International Food Policy Research Institute, through the Safe Food, Fair Food project at ILRI. Martin Heilmann got a scholarship from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD)

Antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica in pork and vegetable servings at pork joints in Kampala, Uganda

The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars including the presence of shared plasmids in pork and related fresh vegetables served in pork joints in Kampala, Uganda. Pork butcheries in three of the five administrative divisions of Kampala were included for the survey. Samples included raw pork, roasted pork, water, onions, tomatoes, cabbage, butcher’s hands (swabs), utensils (swabs) and fly midgut extracts. A total of 693 samples were collected from 77 pork butcheries from June- October 2014. Overall 53.2% pork joints had samples positive for Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovars. Isolation rates ranged from 31.2% (24/77) for raw pork, 1.3% (1/77) for roasted pork, 7.8% (6/77) for tomatoes, 2.6% (2/77) for onions, 5.2% (4/77) for cabbage, 9.1% (7/77) in water, and 22.1% (17/77) from fly midguts. Swab samples taken from utensil and butcher’s hands swabs were found negative (Heilmann et al., 2015). In the isolates obtained, resistance towards 22 antibiotics was tested. Resistances were found towards 11 out of the 22 antibiotics tested. High resistances were found to Cephazolin (97%), Cefotixime (93%), Gentamicin (88%), and Ceftazidime (86%). Intermediate resistance was found to Ciprofloxacin (59%) and Amoxicillin-Clavulanic acid (57.6%). Most isolates (85%) were susceptible to Levofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethoprim. Identification of plasmids by PCR-based replicon typing was performed recognizing FIA,FIB,FIC,HI1,HI2,I1- 1ᵞ,L/M,N,P,W,T,A/C,K,B/O,X,Y,F and FIIA. Six incompatibility groups were identified: FIA, W, FIC, FIB, P, Y with more than one incompatibility group existing among different isolates. A high resistance rate among Salmonella strains was found while the total number of incompatibility groups detected was with approximation 2.4. Thus, even though the total number of plasmids per strain is low, resistance rates detected remain high. The high resistance rates are probably resulting from intensified food animal production driving a greater use of antibiotics, which is a crucial aspect of public health concern

Present and future use of antimicrobials in pigs in developing countries and case studies from Uganda and Vietnam

Demand for pork is growing rapidly in developing countries, and will be mostly met by intensive production. Although this can produce large quantities of affordable meat, it can have environmental, social and human health externalities. We report on recent studies conducted by ILRI and partners on antimicrobial use in pork production in developing countries and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pork

The use of antimicrobials to boost livestock productivity at Ugandan piggery and poultry farms and implications for public health

Improving productivity is a major challenge for livestock keepers in Uganda. According to anecdotal newspaper reports, pig and poultry keepers from Uganda have been using various antimicrobial substances for growth promotion in pigs and poultry that are banned for livestock use, such as anti- retroviral drugs (ARV). A qualitative study in ten districts across Uganda aimed to determine farmers’ perceptions and practices related to antimicrobials. Two focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted each district, one including eight pig and poultry farmers known for feeding antimicrobials who were recruited with the help of the district veterinary officers; and one with a group of animal health workers serving the same geographical area. A generic tool (KAP AMUSE) to assess knowledge, attitudes and practices on antimicrobial use guided the development of a group discussion protocol. In addition, in each district, samples of chicken (n=100), pigs (n=100) and animal feeds (n=50) were collected for screening of antibiotic residues using Premi®Test (r-biopharm, Germany) and for residues of antiretrovirals using high-performance liquid chromatography. Feeds and diseases were the main challenges faced by farmers. All poultry farmers, from small to large size flocks, reported adding antibiotics to water and feeds to prevent disease. Pig farmers reported limited use of antibiotics, but in the event of African swine fever outbreaks, they use a lot of oxytetracycline for treatment. Farmers reported the use of ARVs as growth promoters, an idea that developed from the fact that ARVs seem to cause rapid weight gain in humans. Farmers also reported the use of ARVs to manage viral infections in poultry and pigs, apparently because to them virus of humans and livestock of the same family and if ARVs “can relive the viral infections in humans, they ought to perform wonders with livestock virus”. The work is co-funded by the CGIAR Research Program on Livestock and on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health as part of a fellowship with the Africa Biosciences Challenge Fund at the Biosciences eastern and central Africa Hub hosted by ILRI in Nairobi

Present and future use of antimicrobials in pigs in developing countries and case studies from Uganda and Vietnam

Demand for pork is growing rapidly in developing countries, and will be mostly met by intensive production. Although this can produce large quantities of affordable meat, it can have environmental, social and human health externalities. We report on recent studies conducted by ILRI and partners on antimicrobial use in pork production in developing countries and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in pork.</p