Overview of crossover study design (adapted from Burton <i>et al</i>., 2017 [21]).

<p>A. Probiotic yoghurt and acidified milk were consumed during two test phases. Postprandial dairy tests (D1 and D2) were completed at the beginning of each test phase and fasting tests were completed after two weeks intake of each product (Fasting 1 and 2). Run-in and wash-out periods respectively preceded and followed the two test phases. Three-day controlled diets were provided prior to all test days and dairy intake was restricted during all study phases. B. Blood sampling on D1 and D2 assessed metabolic, inflammatory and gene expression changes in the six-hour period following dairy intake. All parameters were assessed for the fasting tests. Abbreviations: HOMA, homeostatic model assessment; NEFA, non-esterified fatty acids; hsCRP, high sensitivity C-reactive protein; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; CCL2, chemokine ligand 2; CCL5, chemokine ligand 5; IL6, interleukin 6; TNFα, tumor necrosis factor alpha.</p

Similarities and differences in the regulation of genes that contribute to enrichments of the inflammatory response geneset after dairy intake.

<p>Each bar shows the total number of genes that contributed to the enrichment for the indicated condition (yoghurt or acidified milk; 2, 4 or 6 h postprandially) and the bar is coloured to indicate whether the genes in the enrichment were regulated in the same manner after the alternative dairy product. Abbreviations: AM, acidified milk; Y, yoghurt.</p

Association between expression of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (<i>AhR</i>) gene in blood cells and circulating concentrations of indole-3-acetaldehyde (IAAld) and insulin.

<p>Postprandial changes in <i>AhR</i> expression (A) and in circulating concentrations of IAAld (B) (Pimentel <i>et al</i>.,<i>submitted</i>) following dairy intake. Postprandial changes of <i>AhR</i> correlate with IAAld after acidified milk intake (rho = -0.43, <i>p</i> = 0.05) but not after yoghurt intake (rho = 0.28, <i>p</i> = 0.20) (C). Changes in <i>AhR</i> expression at 2 h postprandially correlate with changes in insulin at 2 h after yoghurt intake (rho = 0.75, <i>p</i> = 0.05) with a similar trend after acidified milk intake (rho = 0.61, <i>p</i> = 0.14) (D). Acidified milk, blue and yoghurt, red. Symbols represent the time of sampling: 2 h (circles), 4 h (triangles) and 6 h (squares). Abbreviations: <i>AhR</i>, aryl hydrocarbon receptor; IAAld, indole acetaldehyde.</p

Genes that are implicated in the differential regulation of A. KEGG insulin signaling pathway and B. oxidative phosphorylation pathway at 2 h.

<p>The median response for each gene is illustrated by a bar (blue for acidified milk, red for yoghurt) and ordered by the dairy condition that elicited the greatest change in gene expression. Lighter colours show non-significant responses and dark shades show a significant change after intake of the dairy product (<i>p</i> < 0.01).</p

Postprandial changes of genes implicated in the regulation of the inflammatory pathway after intake of yoghurt or acidified milk.

<p>The genes contribute to up-regulation of the pathway at 2 h following both dairy products (acidified milk <i>p</i>_adj = 0.10, yoghurt <i>p</i>_adj = 0.16), and down-regulation of the pathway at 4 h and 6 h (acidified milk 4 h <i>p</i>_adj = 0.14 and 6 h <i>p</i>_adj > 0.20, yoghurt 4 h <i>p</i>_adj = 0.04 and 6 h <i>p</i>_adj = 0.07). The median change in gene expression (with respect to fasting levels) is illustrated for each gene by a single bar (red for yoghurt, blue for acidified milk). Lighter colours show non-significant changes as compared to dark shades (<i>p</i> < 0.01). Genes are ranked by the greatest change at 2 h to observe the evolution of the postprandial response.</p