The role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health

Over 40-years of research has highlighted the prevalence of peer victimisation, and the impact experiencing this behaviour can have on adolescents’ mental health. Underpinned by the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and the socio-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Espelage & Swearer, 2003), the aim of this thesis was to examine the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. Three studies were undertaken: a systematic review of extant literature; the secondary data analysis of a cross-sectional study of 3,737 pupils examining the role of domain-specific perceived social support in the relationship between bullying, cyberbullying and poor mental health; and a longitudinal study of 530 adolescents aged 11 to 14 examining the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and symptomatology. The results of the systematic review highlighted an inconsistent pattern of findings regarding the role of perceived social support. Both the cross sectional and longitudinal study found that perceived social support from parents/guardians, teachers, and friends did not significantly moderate the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. The results of the systematic review also highlighted a role for threat and control cognitive appraisals in this relationship. Cognitive appraisals of threat, challenge, control and blame were examined in the longitudinal study. Results of this study found a small but significant total indirect effect for threat and challenge appraisals in the development of depressive symptomatology. This study is the first to report a role for challenge appraisals in adolescents’ adaptations to peer-victimisation. The findings of this thesis highlight the utility of the transactional model of stress and socio-ecological model for researching the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health.Over 40-years of research has highlighted the prevalence of peer victimisation, and the impact experiencing this behaviour can have on adolescents’ mental health. Underpinned by the transactional model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) and the socio-ecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Espelage & Swearer, 2003), the aim of this thesis was to examine the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. Three studies were undertaken: a systematic review of extant literature; the secondary data analysis of a cross-sectional study of 3,737 pupils examining the role of domain-specific perceived social support in the relationship between bullying, cyberbullying and poor mental health; and a longitudinal study of 530 adolescents aged 11 to 14 examining the role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and symptomatology. The results of the systematic review highlighted an inconsistent pattern of findings regarding the role of perceived social support. Both the cross sectional and longitudinal study found that perceived social support from parents/guardians, teachers, and friends did not significantly moderate the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health. The results of the systematic review also highlighted a role for threat and control cognitive appraisals in this relationship. Cognitive appraisals of threat, challenge, control and blame were examined in the longitudinal study. Results of this study found a small but significant total indirect effect for threat and challenge appraisals in the development of depressive symptomatology. This study is the first to report a role for challenge appraisals in adolescents’ adaptations to peer-victimisation. The findings of this thesis highlight the utility of the transactional model of stress and socio-ecological model for researching the relationship between peer-victimisation and poor mental health

The role of perceived social support in the relationship between being bullied and mental health difficulties in adolescents

The aim of the study was to test the relationship between experiences of being bullied, cyberbullied, and mental health difficulties, and whether these relationships are moderated by perceived social support and gender. Data were collected from 3737 year 8 pupils (aged 12 and 13 years; 50.1% male) using an online questionnaire. Measures of bullying victimization, perceived social support, and mental health difficulties were included in the online questionnaire. Moderation analyses were conducted to test whether the relationships between being bullied, cyberbullied, and mental health difficulties were moderated by perceived social support and gender. Four models were estimated, each assessing a different source of perceived social support (from family, friends and peers, professional sources, and the perception of having no support). Results of these analyses indicated that across all four models being bullied was significantly associated with mental health difficulties, and being cyberbullied was only significantly associated with poorer mental health difficulties in girls in one of the models. The different sources of perceived social support did not moderate the relationship between experiences of being bullied or cyberbullied and mental health difficulties for either boys or girls. However, significant associations were found between a perceived lack of support, perceived social support from friends and family, and mental health difficulties in girls, but not in boys. The results contribute to a complex body of research findings exploring the role of perceived social support in the relationship between experiences of being bullied and mental health difficulties

Toilet talk: using a students as researchers approach to problematize and co-construct school toilet policy and practice

School toilets, globally and historically, have been problematic as places of shame and bullying, often providing pupils with inadequate facilities. This participatory student research project sought to develop political agency with youth researchers, equipping them with research skills to develop a project about school toilets, and to help challenge and shape their school’s policy and practice. By applying Sara Ahmed’s concepts of willful subjects (2014) and complaint (2021) to the data, we begin to question who can use school toilets as expected. Often fear, disgust and restrictions encourage, if not force, disabled, menstruating, transgender and gender diverse students, to contravene toilet norms, and be considered willful. We worked with student researchers to problematize issues and explore the potential for more effective policies. We argue it is imperative to use feminist pedagogy to challenge toilet policy and practice, with children and young people, to achieve wider social justice in education

The Personal Experiences Checklist Short Form (PECK-SF): tests of invariance across gender and over time

Peer-victimization is a frequent experience for many children and adolescents. Accurate measurement of peer-victimization is essential for better understanding such experiences and informing intervention work. While many peer-victimization and bully scales exist, they often lack important psychometric information. The short form of the Personal Experiences Checklist (PECK-SF) provides a brief measure of peer-victimization. Existing psychometric data supports the use of the scale as a measure of peer-victimization. However, there are no reports of invariance testing, limiting our ability to confidently use the scale to compare scores across boys and girls and for use in longitudinal research studies. Therefore, the aim of this study is to test the PECK-SF for invariance across gender and over time. Data were collected as part of a longitudinal study of 11- to 14-year-olds who provided data at two-time points two months apart (NTime 1 =744 N Time 2 = 333). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the one-factor structure of the PECK-SF. Invariance testing demonstrated strict invariance over time and across gender. The use of the PECK-SF is recommended when examining gender differences, or conducting longitudinal studies, in peer-victimization

Sudden cardiac death in marathons: a systematic review

The aim of this systematic review is to summarise the results of cohort studies that examined the incidence of SCD in marathons and to assess the quality of the methods used. A search of the PROSPERO international database revealed no prospective or published systematic reviews investigating SCD in marathons. The review was conducted using studies that reported and characterised the incidence of SCD in people participating in marathons. Studies were identified via electronic database searches (Medline, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus and Google Scholar) from January 1, 1966 to October 1, 2014 and through manual literature searches. 7 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in this review. 6 of the studies were conducted in the USA and 1 in the UK. These studies covered a 34-year period involving between 215,413 and 3,949,000 runners. The SCD of between 4 and 28 people are recorded in the papers and the reported estimates of the incidence of SCD in marathons ranged widely from 0.6 to 1.9 per 100,000 runners. The proportion of those suffering SCD who were male ranged from 57.1% to 100% and the mean age reported in the papers, ranged from 37 to 48. This review raises 4 methodological concerns over i) collating reports of SCD in marathons; ii) time of death in relation to the marathon; iii) the use of registrants rather than runners in the estimates of sample size and iv) limited detail on runners exercise history. These four concerns all threaten the reliability and interpretation of any estimate of SCD incidence rates in marathons. This review recommends that the methods used to collect data on SCD in marathons be improved and that a central reporting system be established

Does perceived social support moderate the relationship between peer-victimisation and adjustment?

Objectives: Although the relationship between peer-victimisation and adjustment is well established, not all victims develop negative outcomes. The transactional model of stress provides a useful framework for examining such individual differences. Specifically, previous research supports the notion that secondary appraisals of available social support may buffer the relationship between peer-victimisation and symptoms of depression and anxiety. However, research exploring the buffering role of perceived social support in the relationship between different types of victimisation and adjustment is limited. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine whether perceived social support moderates the relationships between peer-victimisation and adjustment, and between cyber-victimisation and adjustment. Methods: Data were collected using an online survey. The survey included a measure of peer-victimisation, the short 12-item version of the General Health Questionnaire, and questions relating to perceptions of social support. In total, 2,196 year 8 pupils (aged 12 and 13) participated in the survey, from nine English secondary schools within one local authority region. Results: Perceived social support moderated the relationship between peer-victimisation and adjustment, and between cyber-victimisation and adjustment. However the direction of this relationship differed. Conclusions: The findings will be examined in the context of the transactional model of stress and current research on the relationship between peer victimisation, perceived social support, and adjustment. Implications for future research and intervention programmes will be discussed

The measurement invariance of the Personal Experiences Checklist (PECK) over time and across gender.

Introduction: Bullying is a significant problem in schools and those who are bullied report poorer adjustment in the short- and long-term (Reijntjes et al., 2010, 2011). The personal experiences checklist (PECK) (Hunt, Peters, & Rapee, 2012) provides a multidimensional assessment of bullying experiences, and includes 32 items capturing reports of relational-verbal, cyber, physical bullying and bullying based on culture. A short, 14-item, version of the PECK has been created. The aim of this study is to test the factor structure of the short version of the PECK and to test for measurement invariance over time and across gender. Methods: Data are being collected over three time points over three months during the 2018/19 academic year from pupils aged 11 to 14 years. The short version of the PECK is being used at time 1 and time 3, which are approximately three months apart. Results: Data will be analysed in MPLUS using confirmatory factor analysis to test the factor structure of the scale. The data will also be analysed to test for both weak and strong factor invariance across the two-time points and across gender. Discussion: The psychometric properties of the scale will be discussed, focusing specifically on whether the factor structure of the short version of the PECK is invariant over time. Implications for the use of the scale for the assessment of bullying and evaluation of interventions will also be discussed

The role of cognitive appraisals in the relationship between peer-victimisation and adjustment: A longitudinal study.

Introduction: Peer-victimisation is a frequent experience for many adolescents, and is related to poor adjustment in the short- and long-term (e.g. Reijntjes et al., 2010, 2011). Evidence suggests that primary appraisals (e.g. the evaluation of the event as controllable, feeling threatened) and secondary appraisals (e.g. perceived social support) may play a role in the relationship between peer victimization and adjustment (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Noret, Hunter, & Rasmussen, 2018). Research to date has tended to test primary and secondary appraisals separately, employing cross-sectional designs. Therefore, the aim of this study is to test whether primary appraisals mediate, and secondary appraisals moderate, the longitudinal relationship between peer-victimisation and depressive symptomology. Methods:Data are being collected over three time points during Autumn of the academic year 2018-19 from pupils aged 11 to 14 years. A questionnaire assesses: experiences of peer-victimisation, cognitive appraisals of threat, control, challenge, blame and perceived social support, and depressive symptomology. Result:Data will be analysed according to a pre-registered data analysis plan, using a cross-lagged panel analysis. Cross-lagged relationships between peer-victimisation and depressive symptomology will be reported, alongside any mediating role for primary appraisals and any moderating role of perceived social support. Discussion:The findings of the study will be discussed in the context of the Transactional Model of Stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Implications for our understanding of the relationship between peer-victimisation and depressive symptomology will be discussed, alongside implications for intervention programmes

Self-Efficacy Beliefs Among Japanese English-as-a-Foreign-Language Teachers : The Importance of Teacher Experience

This article presents the findings of a mixed-methods study measuring the efficacy beliefs of Japanese English-as-a-foreign-language teachers regarding student engagement, instructional strategies, classroom management, and lesson planning. The study sought to identify relationships between levels of self-reported efficacy among these teachers and their gender, as well as their teaching experience. It also examined their views on how schools could support their teaching to enable them to become more effective and confident language teachers. Data were collected using a reflective report, a semi-structured interview, and a self-efficacy questionnaire. The findings indicated that Japanese secondary school teachers reported fairly high levels of perceived self-efficacy in their pedagogical practice. These beliefs were significantly correlated to only one factor: teaching experience. The study also revealed that experienced teachers had higher expectations regarding support from their schools and that these were more concrete and explanatory than those of novice teachers