Pathways to sustainable agricultural investments in the Lao PDR: Transformations in natural resource and labour relations through land-based investments and their impacts on human well-being

After an initial boom in the early years of the millennium, global land-based investments, also called Large-Scale Land Acquisitions (LSLAs), have slowed in recent years, but their impact on local environments and human well-being still poses a challenge for fulfilling the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The debate on the effects of LSLAs lacks systematic assessment at the meso-level of spatial and administrative scale – a level that is critical for informing national policies. This research addresses that issue by first explaining how LSLAs entail differential impacts on local livelihoods, and second, by revealing how positive outcomes to these investments can be achieved in the context of the Global South. My analysis of the recent land concession inventory of the Lao PDR, including the scope, scale and socio-ecological context of LSLAs, reveals how land deals have impacted local livelihoods. They have transformed natural resources and labour relations by pushing former land users into precarious situations and onto pathways leading to different well-being outcomes. The affected villages have experienced different degrees of poverty increase or reduction. This research suggests that looking only at quantitative variables, especially the size of the land acquisitions, is a poor predictor of their socio-economic impacts. A better understanding of key variables is urgently needed to avoid both misinterpretations of the impact and misguided land-based investment policies. Using a methodological approach that includes an examination of monetary poverty, multiple dimensions of human well-being, primitive accumulation, and precarity, this research suggests that the pathway to improved human well-being in the context of LSLAs is very narrow. The decrease in monetary poverty in most villages has not resulted in positive human well-being outcomes. In terms of employment, which is the most important and immediate benefit that smallholders can enjoy, the findings reveal that in some cases, the peasants have experienced dispossession without proletarianization. In many cases, semi-proletarianization has occurred, but through adverse terms rather than could be part of a sustainable livelihood strategy. To avoid the negative impacts and ensure that land deals contribute to sustainable agricultural growth, this dissertation emphasizes four key points: 1) A comprehensive socio-environmental impact analysis and monitoring that includes natural resources such as non-timber forest products, timber and wild animals must be implemented rather than just focusing on the land itself. Implementation of the relevant accompanying measures must take place throughout the business cycle. Protecting access to the land and other resources is imperative as natural resources still play a significant role in rural resilience. This will ensure that smallholders, particularly women and vulnerable groups like ethnic minorities, can sustain their traditional livelihoods, especially during the transition period. 2) Adverse outcomes tend to occur in cases in which smallholders are dependent on natural resources for a living rather than already being engaged in the non-farm sector. Therefore, the development of LSAs must consider the socio-ecological heterogeneity of peasant livelihoods. 3) The International Code of Conduct (free, prior, and informed consent) per se does not guarantee positive well-being outcomes but it does provide space for consultation and negotiation. Thus, it is an important tool that should be applied by the investors, but should not be considered as the solution for safeguards. 4) Promoting land-based investments as a means of poverty reduction in rural areas by moving from the natural resource- to wage-based livelihoods is effective only with accompanying related measures. The national government should consider appropriate trade-offs among different development goals – for example, large-scale, labour-intensive investments may not significantly contribute to national growth but they may generate a higher number of jobs which may have a great positive impact on human well-being.ພາຍຫຼັງທີ ່ ໄດ້ມີການຂະຫຍາຍຕົວຢ່ າງໄວວາ ແລະ ກວ້າງຂວາງ, ການລົງທຶນໃນຂົງເຂດທີ ່ ດິນ ຫຼື ເອີ້ນ ວ່ າ ການເຊ່ າົ -ສໍາປະທານທ່ ດີ ນິ ຂະໜາດ ໃຫຍ່ (LSLAs) ຢ່ ູໃນໂລກໃນຊຸມປີມ່ ໆໍ ນ ີ້ ໄດມ້ ກີ ານຂະຫຍາຍຕວົ ຊາ້ ລງົ ແຕ່ ຜນົ ກະທບົ ຂອງມນັ ຕ່ ໍກບັ ສ່ ງິ ແວດລອ້ ມ ແລະ ການມຊີ ວີ ດິ ການ ເປັນຢູ ່ ທີ ່ ດີ (Human well-being) ຂອງທ້ອງຖິ ່ ນ ຍັງເປັນສິ ່ ງທ້າທາຍໜຶ ່ ງ ຕໍ ່ ກັບການບັນລຸເປົ້າໝາຍການພດັ ທະນາແບບຍນື ຍງົ ປີ 2030. ການຖົກຖຽງ ກ່ ຽວກັບ ຜົນກະທົບຂອງ LSLAs ແມ່ ນຍັງຂາດຂໍ້ມູນຫຼັກຖານ ທີ ່ ໄດ້ຈາກການວິເຄາະຂໍ້ມູນຢ່ າງເປັນລະບບົ ໃນລະດບັ ຊາດ ຊ່ ງຶ ເຫັນວ່ າ ມີຄວາມສໍາຄັນຫຼາຍ ຕໍ ່ ກັບນະໂຍບາຍແຫ່ ງຊາດ. ການຄົ້ນຄວາ້ ນ ີ້ ໄດປ້ ະກອບສ່ ວນໃນການປິດຊ່ ອງຫວ່ າງດ່ ງັ ກ່ າວ ໂດຍ ທໍາອດິ ໄດວ້ ິ ເຄາະເຖິງ ບັນດາຜົນກະທົບ ຂອງ LSLAs ຕໍ ່ ກັບຊີວິດການເປັນຢູ ່ ຂອງທ້ອງຖິ ່ ນ ວ່ າເກີດຂຶ້ນແນວໃດ ແລະ ຈາກນັ້ນ ໄດວ້ ເິ ຄາະເຖງິ ແນວທາງ ທ່ ສີ າມາດເຮດັ ໃຫກ້ ານລງົ ທນຶ ດ່ ງັ ກ່ າວ ມຜີ ນົ ໄດຮ້ ບັ ດາ້ ນບວກຢ່ ູໃນປະເທດກໍາລງັ ພດັ ທະນາ. ຜົນໄດ້ຮັບຈາກການວິເຄາະຂໍ້ມູນ ການຂຶ້ນ ບັນຊີໂຄງການເຊົ ່ າ ແລະ ສໍາປະທານທີ ່ ດິນ ຂອງລັດຢູ ່ ສປປ ລາວ ທີ ່ ມີຢູ ່ ລ້າສຸດ ຊຶ ່ ງລວມມີຂໍ້ມູນກ່ຽວ ກບັ ປະເພດ ແລະ ຂະໜາດ ຂອງການລງົ ທນຶ ຢ່ ູໃນ ສະພາບແວດລອ້ ມດາ້ ນເສດຖະກດິ -ສງັ ຄມົ ແລະ ນເິ ວດວທິ ະຍາຕ່ າງໆ ໄດສ້ ະແດງເຖງິ ຂະ ບວນການ ທ່ ໂີ ຄງການລງົ ທນຶ ດ່ ງັ ກ່ າວ ໄດສ້ ່ ງົ ຜນົ ກະທບົ ຕ່ ໍກບັ ຊວີ ດິ ການເປັນຢ່ ູຂອງທອ້ ງຖ່ ນິ . ການລງົ ທນຶ ເຫ່ ຼາົ ນ ີ້ ໄດປ້ ່ ຽນແປງສດິ ທກິ ານຖຄື ອງ ທີ ່ ດິນ ແລະ ສາຍພົວພັນດ້ານກໍາລັງແຮງງານ ໂດຍໄດ້ເຮັດໃຫ້ ເຈົ້າ ຂອງທ່ ດີ ນິ ຕອ້ ງຕກົ ຢ່ ູໃນສະພາບຄວາມບ່ ໍແນ່ ນອນ ແລະ ມລີ ະດບັ ຊວີ ດິ ການ ເປັນຢູ ່ ທີ ່ ແຕກຕ່ າງກັນ. ນອກນັ້ນ , ບ້ານທີ ່ ໄດ້ຮັບຜົນກະທົບ ມີລະດັບຄວາມທຸກຍາກເພີ ່ ມຂຶ້ນ ຫຼ ື ຫຸຼດລງົ ໃນລະດບັ ທ່ ບີ ່ ໍຄກື ນັ . ຜນົ ຂອງການ ຄົ້ນ ຄວ້ານີ້ ແນະນໍາວ່ າ ການທີ ່ ນໍາເອົາແຕ່ ຂໍ້ມູນດາ້ ນປະລມິ ານ ໂດຍສະເພາະແມ່ ນ ຂະໜາດຂອງທ່ ດີ ນິ ມາເປັນເກນໃນການປະເມນີ ແມ່ ນບ່ ໍ ເປັນຕົວຊີ້ວັດທີ ່ ດີ ໃນການປະເມີນຜົນກະທົບທາງດ້ານເສດຖະກິດ-ສັງຄົມ ຂອງ LSLAs ຊຶ ່ ງອາດນໍາໄປສູ ່ ການເຂົ້າໃຈທີ ່ ຜິດພາດ ກ່ ຽວກັບ ຜນົ ກະທບົ ຂອງມນັ ແລະ ອາດນາໍ ໄປສ່ ູການກາໍ ນດົ ນະໂຍບາຍທ່ ບີ ່ ໍສອດຄ່ ອງ. ໂດຍການນໍາໃຊບ້ ນັ ດາວທິ ກີ ານຕ່ າງໆ ລວມມ ີ ການປະເມນີ ຄວາມທຸກຍາກໂດຍອງີ ໃສ່ ລາຍຮບັ ເປັນຫຼກັ , ການມຊີ ວີ ດິ ການເປັນຢ່ ູທ່ ດີ ,ີ ການ ຄອບຄອງກໍາລັງການຜະລິດ ເພື ່ ອເຮັດໃຫ້ເຈົ້າ ຂອງທ່ ດີ ນິ ກາຍເປັນແຮງງານຮບັ ຈາ້ ງຢ່ ູທ່ ດີ ນິ ຂອງຕນົ (primitive accumulation and proletarianization) ແລະ ຄວາມບໍ ່ໝັ້ນ ຄົງ ຂອງຊີວິດ (precarity), ບົດຄົ້ນ ຄວ້ານີ້ ຊີ້ໃ ຫເ້ ຫນັ ວ່ າ ການຫຸຼດລງົ ຂອງອດັ ຕາຄວາມທຸກຍາກ ໂດຍອີງໃສ່ລາຍຮັບເປັນຕົ້ນຕໍ ຢູ ່ ຫຼາຍບ້ານທີ ່ ໄດ້ຮັບຜົນກະທົບນັ້ນ ບໍ ່ ໄດ້ໝາຍຄວາມວ່ າ ຊາວບ້ານຈະມີຊີວິດການເປັນຢູ ່ ທີ ່ ດີຂຶ້ນ . ມບີ າງກໍລະ ນີ, ປະຊາຊົນສູນເສຍທີ ່ ດິນໃຫ້ແກ່ ໂຄງການລົງທຶນ ແຕ່ ບໍ ່ ໄດ້ຮັບໂອກາດເຂົ້າ ເປັນແຮງງານຮບັ ຈາ້ ງ ແລະ ໃນຫຼາຍກໍລະນ ີ ຊາວບາ້ ນໄດກ້ າຍເປັນ ເຄ່ ງິ -ແຮງງານຮບັ ຈາ້ ງ ໂດຍຢ່ ູພາຍໃຕເ້ ງ່ອື ນໄຂແບບຄວາມຈາໍ ເປັນ ແທນທ່ ຈີ ະເປັນຍຸດທະສາດ ສໍາລບັ ຊວີ ດິ ການເປັນຢ່ ູແບບຍນື ຍງົ . ເພ່ ອື ຫຼກີ ລຽ້ ງ ຜນົ ກະທບົ ດາ້ ນລບົ ຈາກ LSLAs ແລະ ຮບັ ປະກນັ ວ່ າ ການລງົ ທນຶ ດ່ ງັ ກ່ າວ ປະກອບສ່ ວນເຮດັ ໃຫ ້ ການເຕບີ ໂຕດາ້ ນການຜະ ລິດກະສິກໍາແບບຍືນຍົງນັ້ນ , ຜົນໄດ້ຮັບຈາກການຄົ້ນ ຄວາ້ ນ ີ້ ສະທອ້ ນເຖງິ ສ່ ບີ ນັ ຫາທ່ ສີ ໍາຄນັ ທ່ ຄີ ວນຈະພຈິ າລະນາ ໄດແ້ ກ່ : ໜ່ ງຶ , ຕອ້ ງມ ີ ກນົ ໄກໃນການປະເມນີ ແລະ ຕດິ ຕາມ ຜນົ ກະທບົ ດາ້ ນສງັ ຄມົ ແລະ ສ່ ງິ ແວດລອ້ ມ ແບບຄບົ ຊຸດ ໂດຍຄໍານງຶ ເຖງິ ບນັ ດາຊບັ ພະຍາ ກອນທໍາມະຊາດອື ່ ນໆ ເຊັ ່ ນ: ເຄື ່ ອງປ່ າຂອງດົງ, ໄມ້ທ່ ອນ ແລະ ສັດປ່ າ ແລະ ອື ່ ນໆ ແທນທີຈະເນັ້ນໃສ່ ແຕ່ ທີ ່ ດິນ ແລະ ລວມທັງການຈັດຕັ້ງ ປະຕິບັດ ບັນດາມາດຕະການທີ ່ ຈໍາເປັນ ແລະ ເໝາະສົມ. ພ້ອມກັນນັ້ນ ການປົກປອ້ ງສດິ ທກິ ານນໍາໃຊທ້ ່ ດີ ນິ ແລະ ຊບັ ພະຍາກອນທໍາມະຊາດ ຂອງປະຊາຊນົ ຈ່ ງຶ ເຫນັ ວ່ າມຄີ ວາມສໍາຄນັ ຫຼາຍ ເນ່ ອື ງຈາກວ່ າ ຊບັ ພະຍາກອນທໍາມະຊາດ ຍງັ ມບີ ດົ ບາດສໍາຄນັ ຫຼາຍໃນການຮບັ ມກື ບັ ເຫດສຸກ ເສນີ . ຊ່ ງຶ ມນັ ຈະສາມາດຮບັ ປະກນັ ວ່ າ ຊາວກະສກິ ອນ ໂດຍສະເພາະແມ່ ນ ແມ່ ຍງິ ແລະ ກ່ ຸມສ່ ຽງ ເຊ່ ນັ : ກ່ ຸມຊນົ ເຜ່ າົ ສ່ ວນນອ້ ຍ ສາມາດສບື ຕ່ ໍ ການດໍາລງົ ຊວີ ດິ ທ່ ເີ ຄຍີ ປະຕບິ ດັ ຜ່ ານມາໄດ ້ ໂດຍສະເພາະແມ່ ນ ໃນຊ່ ວງໄລຍະເວລາຂາ້ ມຜ່ ານ. ສອງ, ຜົນກະທົບດ້ານລົບຂອງການລົງທຶນມັກຈະເກີດຂຶ້ນ ໃນກໍລະນທີ ່ ີ ຊາວບາ້ ນຍງັ ອາໄສຊບັ ພະຍາກອນທໍາມະຊາດ ໃນການດໍາລງົ ຊວີ ດິ ເປັນຕົ້ນ ຕໍ ເມື ່ ອທຽບໃສ່ ກໍລະນີ ທີ ່ ຊາວບ້ານໄດ້ຫັນໄປສູ ່ ຂະແໜງການອື ່ ນທີ ່ ບໍ ່ ແມ່ ນການກະສິກໍາແລ້ວ. ສະນັ້ນ , ຈ່ ງຶ ແນະນໍາວ່ າ ຂະບວນການ ຕດັ ສນິ ໃຈ ຫຼ ື ວາງແຜນ ຄວນມກີ ານພຈິ າລະນາເຖງິ ຄວາມແຕກຕ່ າງຂອງປະຊາຊນົ ຢ່ ູໃນແຕ່ ລະເຂດ. ສາມ, ຫກຼັ ການ ກ່ ຽວກບັ ຄວາມສອດຄ່ ອງຂອງສາກນົ (Code of Conduct) ເຊ່ ນັ : ການເຫນັ ດ ີ ເຫນັ ພອ້ ມ ໂດຍມກີ ານຕດັ ສນິ ໃຈຢ່ າງ ອດິ ສະຫຼະ ແລະ ມກີ ານແຈງ້ ລ່ ວງໜາ້ ຢ່ າງດຽວ ແມ່ ນບ່ ໍສາມາດ ຮບັ ປະກນັ ຜນົ ໄດຮ້ ບັ ທາງດາ້ ນບວກໄດ ້ ແຕ່ ມນັ ຕອບສະໜອງ ໂອກາດ ໃນ ການປຶກສາຫາລື ແລະ ການເຈລະຈາໃຫ້ແກ່ ຊຸມຊົນ. ສະນັ້ນ , ຫຼກັ ການເຫ່ ຼາົ ນ ີ້ ແມ່ ນຄວນເປັນເຄ່ ອື ງມທື ່ ສີ ໍາຄນັ ທ່ ນີ ກັ ລງົ ທນຶ ຕອ້ ງນາໍ ໃຊ ້ ແຕ່ ບ່ ໍ ຄວນຖວື ່ າມນັ ເປັນທາງອອກ ສໍາລບັ ການປົກປອ້ ງຜນົ ກະທບົ ດາ້ ນສງັ ຄມົ . ສຸດທາ້ ຍ, ເຫນັ ວ່ າ ການສ່ ງົ ເສມີ ການລງົ ທນຶ ໃສ່ ທ່ ດີ ນິ ເພ່ ອື ເປັນເຄ່ ອື ງມໜື ່ ງຶ ໃນການຫຸຼດຜ່ ອນຄວາມທຸກຍາກຢ່ ູເຂດຊນົ ນະບດົ ໂດຍການຫນັ ຈາກ ການອາໄສຊບັ ພະຍາກອນທໍາມະຊາດ ໄປສ່ ູການເປັນແຮງງານຮບັ ຈາ້ ງ ແມ່ ນມປີ ະສດິ ທຜິ ນົ ຖາ້ ຫາກມ ີ ບນັ ດາມາດຕະການທ່ ຈີ າໍ ເປັນ. ສະນັ້ນ , ຈຶ ່ ງເຫັນວ່ າ ລັດຖະບານ ຈະຕ້ອງໄດ້ພິຈາລະນາເລືອກ (trade-offs) ລະຫວ່ າງ ເປົ້າ ໝາຍ ຂອງການພັດທະນາ - ຕົວຢ່າງ ໂຄງການ ລງົ ທນຶ ຂະໜາດໃຫຍ່ ແລະ ນໍາໃຊແ້ ຮງງານຄນົ ເປັນຫຼກັ ອາດບ່ ໍປະກອບສ່ ວນຫຼາຍປານໃດ ຕ່ ໍກບັ ການເຕບີ ໂຕແຫ່ ງຊາດ ແຕ່ ມນັ ອາດສາ້ ງວຽກ ເຮດັ ງານທໍາໄດຫ້ ຼາຍກວ່ າ

Are commercial investments in land improving wage-labour opportunities and helping to diversify household economies in rural areas?

The Government of the Lao PDR promotes commercial investments in land (CILs) as a driving force of economic growth, a source of vital tax income, and a lever for transitioning from a subsistence to a wage-based economy. Assessment of official data shows that the employment creation benefits of CILs are limited and often not fully compensating their negative impacts, such as land dispossession and reduced access to natural resources. The assessment leads to the conclusion that economic development policies should focus on the compliance with regulations, the development of skills and the diversification of rural economies, rather than simply on the transition to a wage-based economy

Enhancing multi-dimensional quality of land based investments in Lao PDR

There is growing global concern that commercial investments in land (CILs) threaten the environment and local livelihoods, and that their contribution to national revenue generation has been less than expected (Vientiane Times 2017a, 2017b, 2019). In this brief, we present results from an assessment of 279 CILs in the agriculture, tree plantation, and mining subsectors across nine provinces in the Lao PDR. The assessment shows that the quality of CILs varies greatly, that there is a significant potential to improve it, but also that there is no one-size-fits-all solution. The assessment results support the identification of pathways to improve CIL quality. Key elements of such pathways include a better harmonization of approval processes that integrate provincial, district, and local authorities, as well as a higher autonomy of local authorities to monitor investments

Proletarianization and gateways to precarization in the context of land-based investments for agricultural commercialization in Lao PDR

Labor is central to the debates on global land-based investment. Proponents purport that these investments are an avenue for rural transformation from resource- to wage-based livelihoods through the generation of employment and contribution to poverty reduction. Drawing on a recent, unique national dataset on land concessions in Lao PDR, this paper uses an agrarian political economy lens to investigate how land-based investments live up to this expectation. The paper analyzes potential determinants of the degree to which different social groups engage in wage-labor within land-based investments. Results show that while land-based investments create a significant absolute number of jobs, former land users were offered predominantly low-skilled and seasonal jobs. The effects of these investments on rural employment are uneven depending on degrees of land and resource dispossession, the extent of job creation, and the availability of alternative opportunities in the region. In the majority of cases, former land users, especially women were pushed into precarious conditions through three processes: dispossession without proletarianization; limited proletarianization; and adverse proletarianization. We argue that the promotion of land-based investments as an approach for rural development, particularly along the gradient of transforming resource- to wage-labor based livelihoods, is ineffective without concurrent opportunities within and beyond the agricultural sector to absorb the labor reallocated from traditional livelihoods. Enforcing labor regulations, including restrictions on hiring of foreign labor, compliance with minimum wages, and relevant skills transfer are essential to minimize precarization and increase benefits for local people. Further, protecting peasants’ individual and common land-use rights is imperative to minimize the concurrence of precarization and increasing traditional vulnerability

Marginal lands or marginal people? Analysing key processes determining the outcomes of large-scale land acquisitions in Lao PDR and Cambodia

This chapter aims to overcome the gap existing between case study research, which typically provides qualitative and process-based insights, and national or global inventories that typically offer spatially explicit and quantitative analysis of broader patterns, and thus to present adequate evidence for policymaking regarding large-scale land acquisitions. Therefore, the chapter links spatial patterns of land acquisitions to underlying implementation processes of land allocation. Methodologically linking the described patterns and processes proved difficult, but we have identified indicators that could be added to inventories and monitoring systems to make linkage possible. Combining complementary approaches in this way may help to determine where policy space exists for more sustainable governance of land acquisitions, both geographically and with regard to processes of agrarian transitions. Our spatial analysis revealed two general patterns: (i) relatively large forestry-related acquisitions that target forested landscapes and often interfere with semi-subsistence farming systems; and (ii) smaller agriculture-related acquisitions that often target existing cropland and also interfere with semi-subsistence systems. Furthermore, our meta-analysis of land acquisition implementation processes shows that authoritarian, top-down processes dominate. Initially, the demands of powerful regional and domestic investors tend to override socio-ecological variables, local actors’ interests, and land governance mechanisms. As available land grows scarce, however, and local actors gain experience dealing with land acquisitions, it appears that land investments begin to fail or give way to more inclusive, bottom-up investment models

Making concessions pay? Historical vs. potential tax revenues from Laos’s rubber sector

Under-taxation has been a prominent feature of the global land rush, figuring centrally in early concerns that transnational land deals constitute a new round of land grabbing rather than a source of productive investment. In the years since, however, under-taxation has been widely ignored in subsequent literature on state land concessions in the agri-plantation sector across the global South. To address this gap, this paper draws on ongoing research in Laos, where improved concession inventory efforts have helped stimulate a wide-ranging debate (both in and out of government) about the country’s still-opaque processes of concession taxation. We use the rubber sector to examine a pair of concession-taxation strategies that have been pursued to varying degrees both in Laos and more broadly: taxing land from the time it is alienated to a concessionaire (a land fee model), and taxing the resource itself – in this case rubber plantations – from the time they become productive (a royalty model). Using a quantitative-geographic approach enabled by Laos’s recently updated land concession inventory, we estimate potential tax revenues from rubber plantations under four taxation regimes that were deployed in various parts of the country over the last decade and a half: two of each type, with each type including higher and lower per-unit variants. Our analysis of the space of potential taxation implies significant opportunity costs inherent in the status-quo approach to taxation, which we discuss via the example of unaddressed need for concession-related compensation. Especially at the higher-end range, where taxation potentials total in the tens of millions of dollars per year, we find that Laos’s rubber-concession landscape has significant potential to help address this issue. To the degree that under-taxation is addressed in the future, however, new concession-tax revenues will increasingly be subject to spending demands from outside the rubber sector

Building resilient livelihoods in unexploded ordnance (UXO) affected communities in the Lao PDR: Assessing the contribution of UXO removal

This abstract is free to read on the publishers website Lao PDR remains one of the poorest countries in the world. Per capita, it is also the most heavily UXO contaminated. Most of this contamination is in rural areas where the majority of households rely on subsistence farming. Lao PDR is also going through an important transition as the market extends to previously remote areas with subsistence livelihoods shifting to a monetised one. In this context, rural house holds will need a broad range of livelihood assets to stay agriculturally resilient. Using qualitative and quantitive surveys in highly UXO contaminated areas, with a sample from Mon-Khmer, Hmong-Mien and Lao-Tai populations, the purpose of this paper, is to examine how formal UXO clearance programs interact with this livelihood transition. The paper suggests that UXO clearance contributes to accumulation of five livelihood assets (social, physical, finance, human and environmental assets). The way in which UXO clearance impacts on these assets however, and how benefits are derived, is mediated by five contextual factors: 1) access to assets; 2) market opportunities; 3) institutional arrangements; 4) community ownership and 5) the vulnerability context. Individual interactions with released livelihood assets are also an important factor in how benefits accumulate. These contextual and individual factors mean that while general statements can be made about the contribution of UXO clearance to the livelihood platform, the way in which benefits accrue is neither simple nor linear. Further, impacts may not be sustained over time if contextual factors change. The study also suggests that for a full accounting of return on investment of UXO clearance, a holistic approach is required