Coordinate induction of genes involved in chylomicron synthesis and clearance is delayed in MetS mice.

<p>After overnight fasting, control and MetS mice were gavaged with 0.5 mL oil and sacrificed 1 and 6 h later. Jejunal mRNA levels of genes of interest were evaluated by real-time PCR and normalized to 36B4 mRNA. Induction of gene expression is shown at 1 h (A) and 6 h (B) after the lipid load as compared with fasting in control and MetS mice. Means ± SEM, n = 5 or 6, *<i>P</i> < 0.05, **<i>P</i> < 0.01, ***<i>P</i> < 0.001. Induction of gene expression obtained from control and MetS mice was also compared across groups # <i>P</i> < 0.05, ## <i>P</i> < 0.01.</p

MetS mice display higher postprandial lipemia than controls and altered TRL particle distribution.

<p>Plasma TG (A) and NEFA (B) quantified after an intragastric lipid load (0.5 mL) in control and MetS mice. TG secretion as a function of time after or not the lipid load in mice pre-injected retro-orbitally with the LPL inhibitor (tyloxapol, 500 mg/kg) (C). Lipoprotein particle distribution in the plasma estimated using DLS in mice injected with tyloxapol at 1h (D), 2 h (E) and 4 h (F) after the lipid bolus. Means ± SEM, n = 8 (A, B and C), n = 5 (D, E), n = 11 (F), means with same letter are not significantly different, *<i>P</i> < 0.05, ***<i>P</i> < 0.001.</p

Streptozotocin treatment restores lipid-downregulation of CD36 and its associated effects in MetS mice.

<p>A retro-orbital injection of streptozotocin (100 mg/kg) was performed in fasted MetS mice. Six days later, fasted MetS mice were treated with tyloxapol (500mg/kg), given a lipid-bolus and sacrificed 1.5 h later. (A) CD36 expression in jejunal mucosa (B) Streptozotocin effect on mRNA levels of key chylomicron genes by real-time PCR with data normalized to 36B4 mRNA (C). Plasma TG secretion. Means ± SEM, n = 5, *P<0.05.</p

Lipid-mediated induction of genes involved in chylomicron synthesis is dependent on CD36 proteasomal degradation.

<p>Fasted CD36 (+/+) and CD36 (-/-) mice were intraperitoneally injected with MG132 (14 mg/kg) 30 min before oil gavage and sacrificed 4 h later. (A) CD36 expression standardized to HSC70 as the loading control. (B) mRNA level analysis by real-time PCR normalized to 36B4 mRNA. Means ± SEM, n = 5. *<i>P</i> < 0.05.</p

Small intestinal effects of postprandial hyperinsulinemia in MetS mice.

<p>Plasma insulin levels at 0 (fasted) and 1 and 6 h after the lipid load. Means with same letter are not significantly different (A). AKT activation in the jejunal mucosa from overnight fasted control and MetS mice 1 h after the lipid bolus. Phosphorylated AKT level was standardized to total AKT (B). mRNA levels of the insulin receptor and insulin receptor substrate 1 in fasted mice measured by real-time PCR (normalized to 36B4 mRNA). Means ± SEM, n = 5 or 6, * <i>P</i> < 0.05 (C). Correlation between plasma insulin level and percentage drop in jejunal CD36 protein in control and MetS mice, 1 and 6 h after a lipid load expressed relative to levels in fasted mice. Pearson correlation, n = 22, P<0.05 (D).</p

Genes involved in chylomicron synthesis are upregulated by fatty acids in ileum of MetS mice.

<p>After an overnight fast, control and MetS mice were gavaged with 0.5 mL oil and sacrificed 6 h later. Ileal gene expression levels were evaluated by real-time PCR and normalized to 36B4 mRNA. Data presented show induction of gene expression 6 h after the lipid load as compared with fasting in control and MetS mice. Means ± SEM, n = 5 or 6, *<i>P</i> < 0.05.</p

The synergistic effects of glucose and palmitate on ER stress and reduction of insulin signaling is attenuated by addition of a chemical chaperon.

<p>(<b>A</b>) MIN6 cells were treated with either control 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA at a concentration of 5, 10, 25 mM glucose for 8 hours. Total cell lysates were extracted at indicated time points and were subjected to Western blot analysis using anti-phospho-PERK (980Thr), anti-phopsho-eIF2α (51Ser), and (<b>B</b>) MIN6 cells were treated with either control 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA at a concentration of 5, 10, 25 mM glucose for 18 hours and blotted with anti-ATF3 and anti-CHOP antibodies. β-Actin was detected for loading control. Tunicamycin treatment was control for ER stress. (<b>C</b>) Cells were treated with either 500 µg/ml NaCl (ionic control) or 500 µg/ml TUDCA 15-h prior to beginning of palmitate treatment and then were co-treated with either 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA with either 5 mM or 25 mM glucose and NaCl or TUDCA for 24 h. Total cell lysates were subjected to Western blot analysis with antibodies to the indicated proteins. Densitometry of total CHOP and cleaved Caspase3 and Pdx1 were measured and normalized over α-Tubulin, respectively. Densitometry of phospho-cJun was measured and normalized over total JNK. The representative results of three individual experiments are shown. The effects on CHOP, cleaved Caspase3 and phospho-cJun and Pdx1 protein are graphically illustrated. *p<0.05. (<b>D</b>) Cells were treated with either 500 µg/ml NaCl (ionic control) or 500 µg/ml TUDCA 15-h prior to beginning of palmitate treatment and then were co-treated with either 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA with either 5 mM, 10 mM or 25 mM glucose and NaCl or TUDCA for 24-h. Total cell lysates were subjected to Western blot analysis with antibodies to the indicated proteins. Densitometry of total IRS2 was measured and normalized over α-Tubulin and densitometry of phospho-Akt was measured and normalized over total Akt. The representative results of three individual experiments are shown. The effects on IRS2 protein are graphically illustrated, *p<0.05, **p<0.01.</p

The synergistic effects of glucose and palmitate on ER stress results in concomitant effects on activation of SREBP1.

<p>(<b>A</b>) MIN6 cells were treated with either control 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA at a concentration of 5, 10, 15, 25 mM glucose for 18-h. Nuclear fractions were extracted from the cells and were subjected to Western blot analyses using anti-SREBP1 and anti-Lamin antibodies. 25 µg of nuclear protein was loaded in each lane. The upper band normalized over Lamin was used to do the quantification (the lower band is nonspecific). The relative ratio of nuclear SREBP1 over Lamin calculated by densitometries was summarized as means ± S.E.M. in the graph respectively. The representative results of three experiments are shown, and graphically illustrated, * p<0.05. (<b>B</b>) MIN6 cells were treated with either control 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA at a concentration of either 5 or 25 mM glucose for 24-h. Total cell lysates were subjected to Western blot analysis using anti-acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC) and anti-α-Tubulin antibodies. The representative results of two individual experiments are shown. (<b>C</b>) Cells were treated with either 500 µg/ml NaCl or 500 µg/ml TUDCA 15-h prior to beginning of palmitate treatment. Cells were co-treated with either 0.5% BSA or 400 µM palmitate+0.5% BSA with 25 mM glucose and NaCl or TUDCA for 18-h. Nuclear fractions were extracted from the cells and were subjected to Western blot analyses using anti-SREBP1 and anti-Lamin antibodies. The upper band normalized over Lamin was used to do the quantification (the lower band is nonspecific). 25 µg of nuclear extracts were loaded in each lane. The representative results of three individual experiments are shown. The relative ratio of nuclear SREBP1 over Lamin calculated by densitometries was summarized as means ± S.E.M. in the graph respectively **p<0.01.</p

Working diagram illustrating some of the key steps involved in “glucolipotoxicity” of β-cells.

<p>High glucose and FFA together result in a vicious negative cycle that ultimately promotes β-cell death. As suggested by our findings, high glucose addition to FFA treated β-cells results in much more activation of SREBP1 than glucose alone. SREBP1 enhances ACC expression with generation of malonyl-CoA which impairs FFA oxidation. This in turn leads to augmented ER stress with further activation of ER-localized SREBP1 as a result of degradation of the anchoring protein Insig1. The excess non-metabolized FFA due to more impairment of FFA oxidation would partition in ER membranes compounding ER stress. In addition to SREBP1, ER stress activates ATF3. Both nuclear SREBP1 and ATF3 result in inhibition of IRS2, with concomitant impairment of insulin signaling, activation of Gsk3β and reduction of Pdx1 leading to apoptosis.</p

Inhibition of Gsk3β protects against glucose and palmitate-induced apoptosis in MIN6 cells.

<p>MIN6 cells were infected with 100, 200, or 400 MOI of adenovirus expressing a catalytically inactive mutant of the human Gsk3β (Adv-Gsk3βKM) or adenovirus expressing GFP (Adv-GFP) 24 hours prior to palmitate treatment. Cells were treated with 25 mM glucose and with either 0.5% BSA or 400 µM PA+0.5% BSA for 24 hours. A GFP control was placed on either end of the blot to facilitate comparison of control and Adv-Gsk3βKM. (<b>A</b>) Western blots using the indicated antibodies, with relative expression of Pdx1 normalized over α-Tubulin, and expression levels of cleaved Caspase3 normalized over α-tubulin. (<b>B</b>) Percentage of Propidium Iodide incorporation (n = 3, means ± S.E.M., *p<0.05, *** p<0.001).</p