Household water security through stored rainwater and consumer acceptability: a case study of the Anuradhapura District

Rainwater harvesting has increased in popularity in Sri Lanka over the past two decades due to the number of water supply projects funded by the government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The stored rainwater can provide accessible, reliable, timely and adequate supplies of water to households but there are uncertainties as to safety, in terms of water quality, and consumer acceptability. A study was, therefore, conducted in the Anuradhapura District, in the dry zone, to assess consumer acceptability of stored rainwater for household purposes and to conduct rainwater quality tests in a laboratory. The majority of households in Anuradhapura meet their drinking water requirements from protected wells (59.6 %). Prior to the project, people greatly preferred open wells as a source of domestic water, followed by tubewells, because they believed that water in open wells is of good quality and drinkable. However, stored rainwater has become the priority source now, especially through roof rainwater harvesting (RRWH), which is used during the dry periods. The study revealed that more than 85 % of households use stored rainwater for drinking although some have concerns over the quality and only drink it after boiling. The easy accessibility of water and the assurance by the project team that it is of good quality are the main reasons that people are willing to drink it. The acceptability of stored rainwater for consumption was very high in water-scarce areas and with the increasing distance to the nearest and alternative sources of good-quality water. Of those who felt that they had adequate water, 84 % of the sample households found it adequate in the wet season but only 21 % in the dry season. Water quality analysis revealed that the chemical and physical quality of stored rainwater is within the acceptable range with respect to Sri Lankan Standards, SLS: 614, for potable water quality (SLIS 1983). Other domestic water sources exceeded standards for electrical conductivity, total alkalinity, hardness, ammonium nitrogen, fluorides and total iron. However, stored rainwater was of lower biological quality than other domestic water sources.Length: pp.87-97Domestic waterWater securityWater harvestingWater qualityRural areasCase studies

Comparison of Solvent-Free Microwave Extraction and Conventional Hydro-Distillation of Essential Oils from four Selected Underutilised Citrus sp. Plants

Essential oils (EOs) are widely used in cosmetic, pharmaceutical, fragrance and food industry. Solvent Free Microwave Extraction (SFME) is a green method for the extraction of essential oils from aromatic plants. The aim of the study is to compare SFME with conventional hydro-distillation (HD) technique, for the extraction of EO from four selected underutilised Citrus plant species in the essential oil industry; Citrus medica, C. reticulata, C. madurensis and C. limon in terms of chemical composition, antioxidant activity and energy consumption. The EOs were extracted using SFME (Microwave power: 700 W for 5 minutes and 400 W for 55 minutes) and HD (for 1 hour) and chemically analysed using Gas Chromatography (GC) and Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). The Antioxidant activity of the EOs were determined using Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) and Total Polyphenolic Content (TPC) assays. The GC and GCMS identified 4(10)-Thujene (33.82%) as the major compound in C. medica oil, extracted by HD while that was L- terpinene-4-ol (18%) when extracted by SFME technique. The β-Linalool was the major component in C. reticulata (42.98%) and C. madurensis (37.95%) in SFME extracted EOs, however, it has been dropped down to 26.71% and 26.83% respectively during HD extraction. In C. limon, D-Limonene (43.069%) was abundant in HD- extracted EOs while it was (R)-(+)-Citronellal (39.08%) in SFME-extracted EO. SFME yielded EOs with higher amounts of more valuable oxygenated compounds with higher antioxidant capacities over HD. In comparison with HD, the SFME technique presented higher efficiency with reduced extraction times, costs and energy, yielding EOs with excellent chemical profiles and relatively high antioxidant activity.Keywords: Essential oils, Solvent free Microwave extraction, GC, GCMS, Antioxidan

Range Extension and Vocalisation of Endangered Shrub Frog, Pseudophilautus zorro (Amphibia: Rachophoridae) in Sri Lanka

Gannoruwa shrub frog, Pseudophilautus zorro, is an endemic species known only from four locations in and around Kandy, Gannoruwa forest, home gardens in Triverton estate, Hanthana and Udawaththakele forest reserves. Despite their cryptic nature calling males are conspicuous once identified their vocalisation. Hence, we describe their vocalisation and acoustic characters. We recorded P. zorro from Hanthana (80.6141° E, 7.2497° N; 700 m a.s.l.) and measured six common call characters of 92 calls from four males. We identified four call types based on wave form structure and spectrogram. Type 1 calls were the most frequently emitted call type (93% of 518 calls recorded) having the average call duration 5.1±1.2 mili-seconds. Vocalising frequency of the species ranged between 3,100 Hz and 3,600 Hz. During our field excursions in 2014-2017, we heard similar vocalisation in two sites well away from its known range, Katugasthota (80.6199° E, 7.3302° N; 470 m a.s.l) and Ovilikanda (80.5926° E, 7.4538° E; 470 m a.s.l). We confirm the identity as P. zorro using the morphological characters. Again, on 18th September, 2014 we sighted the species during an excursion to Kukulamalpotha (80.7819° E, 7.5527° N; 460 m a.s.l) in Knuckles reserve. Since the site was very far from the known range of P. zorro, we obtained toe tips from two individuals and confirm their identity genetically by having 0% uncorrected pairwise genetic distance for 16S gene fragment (~510 bp). With three new found locations their Extent of Occurrence and Area of Occupancy has been increased by 14 times (from 20 km2 to 291 km2) and by 2 times (from 16 km2 to 28 km2) respectively. New found populations considerably expanded the species-range and the knowledge of their vocalisation can further use to explore new populations. This study confirms that P. zorro is not restricted as previously thought.Keywords: New population, Bioacoustics, Shrub frogs, Extent of occurrenc

IDENTIFICATION OF THE POLLUTING SOURCES OF THE VAVUNIY A TANK AND THEIR EFFECTS TO PROVIDE SUITABLE MANAGEMENT SUGGESTIONS

One and only tank in the heart of the Vavuniya town is Vavuniya tank. Thequality of water in the tank is degraded due to various anthropogenicactivities. These activities include rapid urbanization and agriculturalpractices. The objectives of the study were to identify the sources of pollutionto the tank and significance of the impacts from pollution and proposingmeasures to prevent further degradations of the tank.Six sampling locations were selected. The samples were collected at adistance about 2-3 meters away from the edge of the water spread area of thetank and to a depth of 30-45cm for 3 days. Electric conductance (EC), pHand salinity were measured by portable meters and standard methods wereused in the determination of CI- (Chloride), N03- (Nitrate), DissolvedOxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Total Dissolved Solid(TDS) and Total Suspended Solid (TSS). The obtained values were comparedwith Sri Lankan Surface Water Tolerance Limits. Several pollution sourceswere also identified.The results of the analysis elucidate that cr and pH were within the tolerancelimit in all these locations but the TSS and N03- were very high. Salinity andEC were very high at Waste Water Drainage site, College of Education siteand close to the Rice Mill site. BOD and DO values were found to be high atthe Waste Water Drainage site and close to the Rice mill site. Pollutionsources identified during the study showed high number of Eichomia,Parthinium and Salvinia, improper solid wastes, oil, grease and wastewater.Other than these some encroachers are in the tank bed

Development of a rapid environmental assessment methodology for roads sector rehabilitation projects

The concern for the environment is ever growing and counter measures are also taken by manycountries to minimize environmental impacts arising from developmental activities. One tool utilised toensure that developments are sustainable is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) which hasbeen a mandatory requirement in Sri Lanka since 1993. However, due to considerable time taken bythe EIA process particularly for extensive projects such as road sector projects concerns have beenraised as to the delays caused by the process which in certain instances might even cause loss offoreign funds. Although detailed assessments are required in some cases it is not always true. Roadrehabilitation projects do not fall into the category of prescribed projects of the National EnvironmentalAct unless sensitive areas are involved and resettlement of more than 100 families are involved.However, foreign funding agencies generally require an environmental assessment of even suchprojects prior to approving of funding which generally cause delays since environmental assessorstend to follow tile same pattern of assessment for all projects regardless of the scope. Numerousmethods have evolved over the years to conduct EIAs some ct'which address environmental impact assessment of sectoral projects particularly water resource development projects which are ratherconvenient to use. However thus far such methods have not been developed for road sector projects.The present study was conducted to develop a Rapid Environment Assessment (REA) technique forthe Sri Lankan road rehabilitation projects where such a tool is yet to immerge. The REA was designedfrom the information collected from literature survey, questionnaire surveys of affected communities,field observations and subject experts' interviews. Three actual rehabilitation projects were studiedfor this purpose. Based on the information first the activities relevant to all the road rehabilitationprojects were listed with the assistance received from the field engineers. Then those activities whichhave no significant impacts were taken out keeping only the activities causing impacts forconsideration.The designed tool in this study is armed with both primary and secondary impacts whichcan arise from specific activities of road rehabilitation projects as well with proposed mitigatory measureswhich can minimize these impacts. The REA is not only comprehensive but also user friendly asactivities and impacts are predetermined and linked to each other so that the users do not have toprepare their own checklists of activities or environmental aspects. It's handy and small. It's generalin usage and could be used in any site of road rehabilitation projects. It's concise as only those activitieswith significant impacts are chosen and included.From surveys it was also discovered that to avoid unnecessary oppositions and social commotion,which would hinder the rehabilitation projects compensation should be decided and granted at theplanning stage itself. It is also highly recommended that a strong monitoring system is utilized. If anyof the proposed mitigatory measures is not effective in neutralizing the impacts, a search for newmeasures is recommended and REA is to be updated accordingly. As REA is not available for roadrehabilitation projects at present in Sri Lanka the tool designed in my study could be taken for futureroad rehabilitation projects to minimize the disadvantages of ElA. However, it should note that theREA is to be used only by experts in order to be effective and accurate. 

Lead and Cadmium levels in seminal plasma of men investigated for infertility: Is it due to occupational and environmental exposures?

Objective: This study was done to determine the association between environmental and occupational exposure to Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) and their levels in seminal plasma. Method: Data on exposures was collected from 300 males investigated for infertility using an interviewer administered questionnaire from July 2010 to October 2011. Positive exposure was defined as environmental or occupational exposure to one or more toxicants such as pesticides, paints, solvents, metals and chemicals. Lead and Cadmium were estimated in seminal plasma by Graphite Furnace Atomic absorption spectrophotometry after digestion with Nitric acid. The correlation between Pb and Cd level and distance from the environmentally polluted area was done by Spearman’s correlation. The means of Lead(Pb) and Cadmium(Cd) levels between exposed and non exposed groups were compared using T-test. Results: The means (SD) of age, duration of the infertility and BMI of the subjects were 34.83(5.34) years, 45.70 (35.09) months, 24.42 (4.28) Kg/m2 respectively. Of the men investigated, 54.6% were exposed to toxicants through environmental or occupational sources. While 26.6% lived in areas with possible environmental toxicity 37.3% were exposed to toxicants through occupational sources. Lead and Cadmium were detected in 38.3% and 23% of men respectively.  Means of Lead (17.69±28.0 ug/dl) vs. (13.46±23.75 ug/dl) and Cadmium (1.24±3.38 ug/dl) vs. (1.11±3.02 ug/dl) levels were higher in the exposed when compared to non exposed men.  A significant positive correlation(r=0.26) was observed between distance from the environmentally polluted areas and Cd positive subjects (P=0.03). Conclusion: Exposure to toxicants through occupational and environmental sources is associated with lead and cadmium levels in seminal plasma.

IMPACT OF SAND MINING ACTIVITIES ON THE QUALITY OF THE WATER

Out of 103 number of rivers in Sri Lanka the 3n1 largest major river is Kaluganga. It hasthe highest volume of discharge as a percent (%) of precipitation per year out of the SriLankan rivers. It originates 4600m above mean sea level (Sripada), is 118km in lengthand opens to the sea at Kalutara.At the lower reaches of Kaluganga is a densely populated zone where the inhabitants arehighly dependent on sand mining activities which adversely affect the quality of thewater in the river. To assess the extent of mining effects, six sites were selected. Out ofthose sites, water samples were collected for monitoring purpose samples were collectedfrom the Kethhena water intake. In the other five sites heavy sand mining activities areon going. To compare the variation of chemical, physical & biological parameters inwater, samples were collected from each site and analysed weekly for two months.The physical parameters measured include - temperature, turbidity, suspended solids andelectrical conductivity. Chemical parameters assessed include pH, dissolved oxygen,BODs ( biological oxygen demand ), alkalinity, water hardness, [ Mg+2], [ Ca+2),[cr ]and COD. The data were analyzed by TWO WAY ANOVA using GLM procedureof MINITAB. Microscopic identification of biological parameters (phytoplankton's) wasidentified.According to the results obtained, the value of pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen arein the desirable level. But some values like conductivity, suspended solids, turbidity,alkalinity, [Cl], [Fe], phosphates as P20s, COD are higher than the desired range. BODsis within desired which means low organic matter in the river. [Cl'] along the riverindicates the salt-water intrusion directly effected by mining lowering the river bed.[Mg2+], [Ca+2], Nitrogen, water hardness are lower than the desired level. Anabena,Nostoc, Microcystis, Closterium, Cosmarium, Occilatoria, Spirogyra. Spirulina Spps arcfound as biological indicators in the water at mining sites but in lower abundancy. At thesite of water intake few species were identified but abundancy is higher than in othersites. These species include, Occilatoria.Euglina ssp.,Closterium,Cosmarium,SpirogiraAccording to the above results it can be concluded that the sand mining activities hasadversely affected the quality of the water at the lower reaches of Kaluganga

Sex education and self-poisoning in Sri Lanka: an explorative analysis

BACKGROUND: Self-harm and suicide are important causes of morbidity and mortality in Sri Lanka, but our understanding of these behaviours is limited. Qualitative studies have implicated familial and societal expectations around sex and relationships. We conducted an explorative analysis using case-control data to investigate the association between sex education and self-poisoning in Sri Lanka. METHODS: Cases (N=298) were self-poisoning inpatients on a toxicology ward, Teaching Hospital Peradeniya. Controls (N=500) were sex and age frequency matched to cases and were outpatients/visitors to the same hospital. Participants were asked whether they had received sex education, and to rate the quality and usefulness of any sex education received. Logistic regression models adjusted for age, sex, and religion quantified the association between receipt, quality and usefulness of sex education and self-poisoning. We tested whether the associations differed by sex. RESULTS: Roughly 1-in-3 cases and 1-in-5 controls reported having not received sex education. Individuals who did not receive sex education were nearly twice as likely to have self-poisoned than those who did (OR 1.68 (95% CI 1.11-2.55)). Those who reported the sex education they received as not useful were more likely to have self-poisoned compared to those who reported it useful (OR 1.95 (95% CI 1.04-3.65)). We found no evidence of an association between self-poisoning and the self-rated quality of sex education, or that associations differed by participant sex. CONCLUSION: As sex education is potentially modifiable at the population-level, further research should aim to explore this association in more depth, using qualitative methods and validated measurement tools. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-12374-4

ANALYSIS OF WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS IN WELL WATER IN THE VICINITY OF AN INDUSTRIAL ZONE AND ANALYSING SOURCES AND EFFECTS

The Ratmalana - Moratuwa area located in the south of Colombo has developed as anindustrial residential suburb of Colombo in the 1950's. It has been revealed that theenvironmental problems in the area are very acute due to the activities of large number ofindustries. About 150 industries arc densely packed, within this area. Most of the industries.are non-agro based industries. They can be catcgoriscd into several groups such as paintindustries, galvanising industries, asbestos industries, dyeing and finishing,pharmaceutical industries and battery manufacturing industries. According to aninvestigation of discharges produced in the area :: was found that major part of the effluentwas released via surface drainage to Lunawa and Bolgoda Lake. The main issue associatedwith this industrial pollution is water contamination. Even though many studies have bccncarried out on surface water contamination, studies on ground water contamination havenot been done in detail. The intention of this study was to, analyse ground water samples atvarious sites of the industrial zone and to relate the results to thc present industrialactivities of the area. From these studies it was found that the chemical oxygen demand(COD), levels far exceed the acceptable portable water quality standards, indicating highchemical pollution. In addition it was found that Chemical pollutants arc present in theground water. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) has exceeded the tolerant limits forportable water level at several locations. The trace metals that exceed the levels arc Zn, Fe,Cd, Pb, and Ni which had not been noted in a previous study done by De Silva et al.( 1986).Low pH values- in some of the samples indicate water contamination with acids. SOl\1esamples have been contaminated with acids and it was revealed by low pl l of sonicsamples, Most industries in the area dispose their effluents directly in to thc drainagesystem without any prior treatments. Ground water contamination is thought to be a directconsequence of these inefficient effluent systems. This study discusses the analytical resultsof water samples taken from various locations of the industrial area and described theindustrial activities ill the area that might have caused this ground water contamination,and discusses possible health effects due to use of polluted watcr as a source of portablewater in this well water.

Towards Reforming Sri Lanka Railways: Insights from International Experience and Industry Expert Opinion

Growing of the automobile industry and the demand for personal car use and chronic financial deficits in the balance sheets of rail operators have significantly affected the rail industry deterioration since 1970. However, gradual rail reforms were carried out by many countries to eliminate financial and operational issues and to develop their rail transportation systems. Sri Lanka has more than 150 years of history in railway operations, yet it is still in a weak position in terms of the operational efficiency and the financial position. The main purpose of this paper is to explore the key issues and root causes for the operational and financial deficiencies of Sri Lanka Railways and identify the best reform model in the light of world rail reform experiences and rail industry experts’ opinion. A semi-structured questionnaire was employed to interview twelve railway industry experts. Content analysis, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) Method, and Policy Delphi Method were the main analytical techniques employed in the study. The results of the analysis showed that the vertical separation of the ownership between rail service operation and rail infrastructure provision is suitable for Sri Lanka Railways and, given the existing operational and financial characteristics, the reform steps should mostly be designed as in the case of the German- Sweden hybrid model of rail reforms