Multiple linear regression model of parasite density at the first febrile malaria episode by different parasite density thresholds^a.

<p>Abbreviations: CL, confidence limit; HbAS, sickle cell trait; NA = not assessed due to lack of individuals with heavy <i>S. haematobium</i> mono-infection in analysis.</p>a<p>Effect of infection status at enrollment on parasite density in log(parasites/µl) using a general linear model with adjustments for age, distance from home to clinic, sickle cell trait, baseline anemia status, and residence in the cluster of high <i>S. haematobium</i> transmission.</p>b<p>1–9 eggs/10 mL urine.</p>c<p>≥10 eggs/10 ml urine.</p><p>Multiple linear regression model of parasite density at the first febrile malaria episode by different parasite density thresholds^{<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003154#nt111" target="_blank">a</a>}.</p

Effect of baseline <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i> mono-infection, <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> mono-infection, and co-infection on first or only malaria episode (with anemia interaction term)^a.

<p>Abbreviations: CL, confidence limit; HR, hazard ratio; HbAS, sickle cell trait.</p>a<p>Risk of first or only malaria episode was adjusted for age, distance from home to river, sickle cell trait, anemia status at baseline, residence in the cluster of high <i>S. haematobium</i> transmission, and roof type in the classic Cox proportional hazards model with inclusion of interaction terms between anemia status and the two covariates with <i>S. haematobium</i> infection (anemia*co-infection and anemia*<i>S. haematobium</i> mono-infection).</p><p>Effect of baseline <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i> mono-infection, <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> mono-infection, and co-infection on first or only malaria episode (with anemia interaction term)^{<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003154#nt109" target="_blank">a</a>}.</p

Kaplan-Meier plots of risk of <i>P. falciparum</i> infection or febrile malaria.

<p>A) Time to first PCR-confirmed <i>P. falciparum</i> blood-stage infection by <i>S. haematobium</i> (Sh) infection status at enrollment. Data shown is only for individuals who were PCR-negative for <i>P. falciparum</i> at enrollment. B) Time to first febrile malaria episode (defined as fever of ≥37.5°C and asexual parasite density ≥2500 parasites/µl on blood smear) by <i>P. falciparum</i> (Pf) and <i>S. haematobium</i> (Sh) infection status at enrollment. C) Time to first febrile malaria episode by <i>S. haematobium</i> (Sh) infection status and anemia status at enrollment. (−) negative status; (+) positive status. <i>P</i> values for log-rank analyses (all groups) are shown. Blue shading indicates time period during which praziquantel was given to all individuals who were determined to be infected with <i>S. haematobium</i> at enrollment.</p

Study participants and risk analysis flow chart.

<p>Study participants and risk analysis flow chart.</p

Spatial distribution of <i>S. haematobium</i> and <i>P. falciparum</i> infections in Kalifabougou, Mali at enrollment (May 2011).

<p>Shapes indicate infected and uninfected cases as noted. Large colored circles show significant, unadjusted clusters: green circle = cluster of co-infected cases in May 2011 (27 cases, n = 158, relative risk [RR] = 6.51, <i>P</i><0.0001, Bernoulli model); red circles = clusters of <i>P. falciparum</i> infections in May 2011 (cluster 1: 35 cases, n = 41, RR = 1.90, <i>P</i><0.001; cluster 2: 12 cases, n = 12, RR = 2.15, <i>P</i> = 0.04, Bernoulli model). Map data: Landsat image obtained from <a href="http://glovis.usgs.gov" target="_blank">glovis.usgs.gov</a> (latitude: 12.952, longitude: −8.173, imagery date: March 2011).</p

Effect of baseline <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i> mono-infection, <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> mono-infection, and co-infection on first or only malaria episode^a.

<p>Abbreviations: CL, confidence limit; HR, hazard ratio; HbAS, sickle cell trait.</p>a<p>Risk of first or only malaria episode was adjusted for age, distance from home to river, sickle cell trait, anemia status at baseline, residence in the cluster of high <i>S. haematobium</i> transmission, and roof type in the classic Cox proportional hazards model.</p><p>Effect of baseline <i>Schistosoma haematobium</i> mono-infection, <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i> mono-infection, and co-infection on first or only malaria episode^{<a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0003154#nt107" target="_blank">a</a>}.</p

Strengths and weaknesses of different assays.

<p>Strengths and weaknesses of different assays.</p

The proportion of successful experiments and the proportion of infected mosquitoes in relation to gametocyte density in the feed sample.

<p>The proportion of successful experiments and the proportion of infected mosquitoes in relation to gametocyte density in the feed sample.</p

A forest plot showing the overall result of each study together with the overall estimates of the meta-analysis.

<p>All data were combined to generate the summary odds ratio and 95% confidence interval estimates denoted by the black diamond. Odds ratios are calculated with the latter feeding condition as reference; e.g. for <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0042821#pone-0042821-g002" target="_blank">Figure 2A</a> the odds ratio for mosquito infection in skin feeding experiments is calculated with whole blood membrane feeding as reference. Points are weighted according to the number of paired experiments in the study (indicated by the size of the data point).</p

The association between mosquito infection rates in skin feeding experiments and whole blood membrane feeding assays.

<p>The proportion of infected mosquitoes in whole blood membrane feeding assays (X-axis) is strongly associated with the proportion of infected mosquitoes in skin feeding assays (Spearman's rho 0.36, p<0.0001). Point size, shape and colour are as described in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0042821#pone-0042821-g003" target="_blank">Figure 3</a>. The shape of the point denotes the country the experiment was carried out in, be it Cameroon (circle), Mali (triangle) or Senegal (diamond).</p