Asthma control status by GINA treatment steps (n=437).

<p>TC denotes total control; WC denotes well control; PC denotes poor control.</p

Gal-9 induces cytokine and chemokine production by HMC-1 cells.

<p>ELISA was performed to determine the levels of IL-6, IL-8 and MCP-1 in the culture supernatants of HMC-1 cells (<b>a</b>), HMC-1 cells pre-treated with 20 mM lactose or sucrose (<b>b</b>), HMC-1 cells pre-treated with recombinant human TIM-3/Fc (rhTIM-3/Fc) or control human IgG (human IgG) (<b>c</b>) and HMC-1 cells pre-treated with ERK inhibitor (PD98059) or its control (SB202474) (<b>d</b>) after 18 hours’ stimulation with 0, 0.25, 0.5 or 1 µM recombinant human Galectin-9 (rhGal-9). Data show the mean ± SD of triplicate samples and are a representative result of three independent experiments. *p<0.05 and/or **p<0.01 versus 0 µM rhGal-9 (<b>a–d</b>), and †p<0.05 and/or ††p<0.01 versus sucrose (<b>b</b>), control human IgG (<b>c</b>) or ERK inhibitor control (<b>d</b>).</p

Galectin-9 inhibits PMA- and ionomycin-dependent degranulation of HMC-1 cells.

<p>(a, b) HMC-1 cells were treated with 0, 0.25, 0.5 or 1 µM (a) and 0 or 0.5 µM (b) recombinant human galectin-9 (rhGal-9) for 30 min. The cells were then stimulated with 0.1 µg/ml PMA +1 µg/ml ionomycin for 30 min. The level of degranulation was assessed from the activity of β-hexosaminidase in the culture supernatant and plotted as the percent release. (c) The number of viable cells in (b) was determined by trypan blue staining. (d) The proportion of propidium iodide-negative and annexin V-positive apoptotic cells in (b) was assessed by flow cytometry. (e) The relative level of degranulation per live HMC-1 cells was determined as (b)/(c). Data show the mean ± SD of triplicate samples and are a representative result of three (a) or two (b–e) independent experiments. *p<0.05, **p<0.01 versus PMA+ionomycin alone.</p

Galectin-9 induces phosphorylation of Erk1/2, but not p38 MAPK, in HMC-1 cells.

<p>HMC-1 cells were cultured in the presence of 1 µM recombinant human galectin-9 (rhGal-9) for the indicated times. Then the levels of phosphorylation of Erk1/2 and p38 MAPK in the cells were determined by western blot analysis. Data show a representative result of three independent experiments.</p

Pathogen detection between asthma inpatients (exacerbation) and stable outpatients (%).

<p>*p < 0.05 by Pearson’s χ² test</p><p>†p < 0.05, by multiple logistic regression analysis.</p><p>Pathogen detection between asthma inpatients (exacerbation) and stable outpatients (%).</p

Patients’ characteristics by pathogen detection (n = 48).

<p>Post ACQ and FeNO levels were measured one month after asthma exacerbation.</p><p>*p < 0.05, Mann-Whitney U test</p><p>†p < 0.05, multiple logistic regression analysis.</p><p>Patients’ characteristics by pathogen detection (n = 48).</p

Pathogens detected.

<p>Pathogens detected.</p

Pathogen detection from asthma exacerbation patients after a common cold.

<p>Pathogen detection from asthma exacerbation patients after a common cold.</p

IL-33 enhances LPS-mediated cytokine production by macrophages.

<p>TGC-induced peritoneal macrophages derived from B6J-WT mice (A–D) and B6N-WT and -IL-33^−/− mice (E) were cultured in the presence and absence of 100 ng/ml LPS, with and without 100 ng/ml IL-33, for 9, 24 and/or 48 h. (A, E) The levels of IL-6 in the culture supernatants by ELISA. (B) The percentage of PI-positive cells by flow cytometry. (C) LDH levels in the culture supernatants. (D) The number of IL-33-secreting cells by ELISPOT. Data show the mean +/± SEM (n = 3 [A] or 4 [B–E]). *p<0.05 vs. the indicated group (A) or Medium (B–E), and ^†p<0.05 vs. 24 h (C, D) or WT (E). P+I = PMA+ionomycin.</p

IL-33 induces TRAF6-dependent cytokine production by mast cells.

<p>BMCMCs obtained from B6J-WT mice (A) and B6J-WT and -TLR4^−/− mice (B; left panels) and FLCMCs obtained from B6J-WT and -TRAF6^−/− mice (B; right panels) were cultured in the presence of various concentration of rmIL-33 (A) or in the presence and absence of 100 ng/ml rmIL-33 for 6 h (for TNF measurement) and 24 h (for IL-6 and IL-13 measurement). The levels of IL-6, IL-13 and/or TNF in the culture supernatants were determined by ELISA. Data show the mean + SD (n = 3). *p<0.05 vs. WT.</p