Language in education and the role of applied linguistics in Kenya

Language in education has remained a major concern in most African countries, especially those that were formerly colonized by European countries. Several problems that Africa and Kenya in particular, faces are closely tied to the language of education. What is the nature of these problems and whose responsibility is it to solve them?  What is the role of an applied linguist in this linguistically complicated situation in Kenya? The definition of applied linguistics or who an applied linguist is eludes many. This paper does not propose to provide a definition either. Using the varied definitions that exist in literature, a working definition is developed and based on that definition; the paper shows that Kenya has several language issues that call for the services of applied linguists. While the issues range from the national language policies, language in education, multilingualism, second language teaching to language acquisition, the paper narrows the focus to four language-based problems, all of which are closely tied to the language of education. Although no solutions are suggested to these problems, a list of questions is formulated for the applied linguist to research on.  Key Words: Language planning, language in education, language policies

Uptake and determinants of cervical cancer screening among health care workers in Aga Khan university hospital, Nairobi Kenya.

Background: The cancer burden has been rising globally. The reported incidence of cervical cancer is 13.1 / 100,000 globally and 40 / 100,000 in Kenya. Up to 88% of all cervical cancer deaths have been reported in lower to middle-income countries. In comparison, developed countries had up to two to four times lower rates of cervical cancer incidence and mortality. The burden of cancers attributable to carcinogenic infections has potentially modifiable risk factors, for which prevention tools already exist. There is a gap in the implementation of evidence-based interventions including primary prevention with the HPV vaccine and secondary prevention with screening and treatment of early precancerous lesions. Both structural and personal impediments to screening programs commonly encountered in sub-Saharan Africa include lack of availability, accessibility, affordability of health services, limited resources, lack of awareness, high HIV burden, poor health-seeking behavior, and psychological factors. The Kenyan government is rolling out cervical cancer screening programs, but the coverage is still low, mainly due to lack of awareness, knowledge, lack of services, and cost of screening, fear, ignorance, and stigma. Therefore, we decided to study the level of screening and determinants of screening, in a well-educated population with good medical coverage, health insurance, and availability of services, to understand the factors that play a role even in this population. In addition, we decided to explore the role of men in the prevention of cervical cancer. Traditionally men have not been involved in reproductive health, as it has always been considered as a woman’s domain. Policy development in family planning has engaged men in taking a proactive role and this has seen acceptability and increased uptake of family planning services, which could be modeled in other preventive and promotion programs of screening for cervical cancer. Methods: We performed a descriptive cross-sectional study recruiting from a population of 2246 healthcare staff offering direct or indirect health services in the Aga Khan University Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya. The study population was stratified into clinical, administrative, and support staff. The nonprobability sampling method was done proportionately to the size of the population to ensure equal representation. Using the prevalence calculation, 362 participants were invited and directly approached after adjusting from the finite population. Data were obtained using a validated semi-structured Cervical cancer Awareness Measure questionnaire (CAM tool). Which collected data including socio-demographics, screening practices and attitudes, advocacy, and knowledge on vaccination. The present study used the Chi-square test for data analysis and further explored the data for an independent variable using multivariate logistic regression. The perceived psychological barriers to health-seeking behavior seen in the study were discussed using the Health Belief Model for the identification of actions to achieve efficacy in the uptake of cervical cancer screening. Results: Out of the 362 invited staff, 352 agreed to participate in the study (97.2 % response rate), with 295 (83.8%) females and 57 (16.2%) males. Out of the 295 females, 183 (62%) (95% CI: 56.2% to 67.6%) had ever been screened for cervical cancer while 112 (38%) were never screened. Factors associated with cervical cancer screening included age above 30 years, parity, marital status, insurance cover, exposure or caring for a cervical cancer patient. On prevention of cervical cancer, 271 (77%) both males and females participants knew the correct age of vaccination, and 24 (8.1%) of the female participants had been vaccinated for cervical cancer. Only 36 (10.2%) of both females and males participants believed in the protective effects of the vaccine, 149(50.5%) of the female participants and 25(43%) of male participants did not believe that vaccination is protective against cervical cancer. On the uptake of routine screening among the 183 females who had ever been screened, 30 (16.4%) had three yearly screening results, with 153(83.6%) were either screened or awaiting due screening interval or not following the recommended interval for screening after the initial screening. Of the 112 females who had not screened for cervical cancer, 59 (52.7%) cited the test as invasive. Out of the 41 (13.9%) female participants who declined future screening opportunities, 68.3% cited psychological factors including fear of the procedure. Of the male participants 42 (63.7%) knew the status of screening of either their partner or close family member with only 9 (15.8%) correctly identified the recommended age of screening. Forty-four (77.2%) males were aware of the availability of cervical cancer vaccine though only 6(10.1%) thought that vaccination against cervical cancer was protective. Insurance cover was high in this population with 294 (83.5%), with a majority of 303 (86.1%) being aware of the cervical screening program availability. Health education was the primary source of current knowledge for 262 (74.4%), while only 103 (29.3%) relied on media as their source of cervical cancer knowledge. Women who had high knowledge of cervical cancer were twice as likely to be screened for cervical cancer as those with low knowledge of cervical cancer (AOR: 2.085; 95% CI: 1.212-3.631). Conclusions: The study illustrates a 62% screening rate in healthcare workers in a private tertiary hospital with minimal to no structural barriers to screening. Personal psychological barriers, including fear of the screening procedure, were the principal reasons for not screening or going for routine screening. In Aga Khan vii University Hospital, there is still an opportunity to increase the acceptability of the test by addressing the psychological fear of the procedure. This can be done by filling of surveys in each vist and counselling of the patients before the procedure. Innovative screening services can be assessed and offered as an alternative to the regular pap smear, so as to increase acceptability of conducting the screening procedure. Likewise, the structuring of education programs can be included in the policy to focus on cervical cancer, screening practices, and importance of vaccination. In addition, cues for action like media campaigns, training programs, and yearly message reminders for screening will aid in increasing cervical cancer screening rates. The findings of this study will be important to share with the governmental and non-governmental stakeholders focusing on cervical cancer screening barriers. The identified personal barriers together with the existing structural barriers need to be addressed in vulnerable populations to improve future cervical cancer screening rates in Kenya. Likewise, implementation of the existing study findings and evidence-based interventions can help achieve the goal of elimination of this preventable cancer

A historical and cultural analysis of the position of Abaluyia Women in Kenyan Quaker Christianity: 1902-1979

The Society of Friends has always declared the equality of women and men. The way in which it has practised this equality has often been influenced by the attitudes surrounding society and culture. This thesis examines and interprets the status, roles and experiences of Abaluyia women in the East Africa Yearly Meeting of Friends (EAYM). The thesis argues that the Abaluyia culture and philosophy prescribed a largely marginal role for women and in turn was absorbed into and dominated the thinking of EAYM. Second the thesis recaptures the story of the women concernedmaking them primary rather than secondary voices in their own history.The thesis begins by analysing how the concept of engoko determined the place and role of women in Abaluyia society. It then examines the American cultural, social and religious context out of which the Friends missionaries came and which invariably shaped their ways of understanding reality and organising their work in Kenya. The arrival of the first Friends missionaries in Kenya in 1902 aimed at raising the spiritual and living standards of the Abaluyia people, especially the women. Their experiences of Abaluyia culture and perceptions of the people is assessed, as well as the move to establish EAYM in 1946. A closer look is taken at the complex and interconnected issues of marriage (especially polygyny) and bride wealth. Missionary inability to grasp the issues involved allowed the Quaker elders to make policies which often reflected the patriarchal views of Abaluyia society. The thesis also examines the nature of mission work among Abaluyia women, and argues that much of the mission discussion about women was prescriptive, confining the ideal Abaluyia woman to her function as mother and homemaker. The discussion shows how missionaries assumed an ideal universal understanding of womanhood and how this affected Abaluyia women's roles in the church and in the wider society.The way in which Abaluyia women experienced and responded to Quaker Christianity is also assessed, especially how they formed separate groups which developed into a Women's Yearly Meeting. From their marginal position women emerged strongly to contribute to the work of a growing church. The thesis then proceeds to discuss the place of women in the organisational structure of EAYM.Using the cases of Maria Atiamuga and Keran Nyamusi Alfayo, the thesis argues that women have been sidelined from the leadership of EAYM because it reflects a traditional pattern of clan leadership which is exclusively male. Finally the thesis assesses the role of women in pastoral ministry by discussing the nature of training at Friends Bible Institute (FBI) and the type of ministry open to women. Using Rasoah Mutua, the first woman graduate from FBI, the thesis shows that the traditional Friends championing of spiritual equality for men and women in the church has not been realised in EAYM.The thesis concludes with a reflection on this disparity due to the persistence of engoko, and proposes a rediscovery of a Friends teaching in this respect, and the formulation of a new ethos in accordance with it to replace engoko

Revitalization of the Teaching Fraternity in Kenya Through Performance Contracting

In order to transform a public service that by and large is characterized by low service delivery, Kenya is struggling to adopt the New Public Management approach. Performance contracting in particular has attracted a lot of debate in the recent past as a strategy in attaining performance in public institutions. In view of this, the education sector has attempted to adopt performance contracting in schools but little has been achieved due to resistance. However a number of insights and lessons have been learnt that can guide reformers and policy makers in education to revitalize the teaching fraternity through the re-introduction of performance contracting. This paper therefore discusses performance contracting as a New Public Management mechanism in education; highlights the indicators and pre-requisites for performance contacting; discusses the experience of the performance contracting in the teaching fraternity in relation to its failure and lessons learnt and finally gives suggestions to be undertaken if the strategy has to be re-introduced to re-vitalize the service delivery in Kenyan schools. Keywords: Re-vitalization, Teaching Fraternity, New Public Management, Performance Contractin

Development of ADR mechanisms in Kenya and the role of ADR in labour relations and dispute resolution

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) is a vastly growing enterprise in conflict management the world over. Its application in managing labour relations and the attendant disputes has been tested and is well settled. Kenya, in recognition of this phenomenon, has adopted a legal framework making provisions for both ADR and Labour rights in its most supreme law, the Constitution of Kenya, 2010. This informs the theme of the current study. The disciplines that are ADR and labour relations are overwhelmingly extensive. Thus they cannot find conclusive commentary in a single book leave alone a thesis with a predicated word count. This paper is neither a one stop-shop treatise nor an integral text on either disciplines but a comprehensive commentary, on the interplay between ADR and labour relations. Fair treatment has been accorded and care has been borne to neither starve one nor belabor the other. It is a commentary spanning eons, reaching out to the past, tracking development and addressing the prevailing circumstances in respect of ADR's application in labour dispute resolution in Kenya. The rich literature review (books, statutes, conventions, journals, articles) quoted is as informative as it is illuminating, and presents a wealth of knowledge. The overall aim is to assess the place of ADR in labour relations in Kenya and spur academic, intellectual and sector-wise debate on the foregoing

The Impact of Financial Development and Economic Growth on Environmental Quality of Kenya

Of recent times many countries are suffering from environmental problems such as global warming and emission of greenhouse gases. Emissions of carbon dioxide as been recognized as the major contributor to global warming and climate change. This paper examines the long run relationship among the variables environmental quality, financial development and economic growth in Kenya using time series for the period 1970-2019. Autoregressive distributed lag bounds test is used to investigate long run relationship and Granger causality method is used to test for causality among the variables. Empirical results indicate that there is long-run relationship among the variables. Long run results suggest that increases in financial development, lagged CO2, energy consumption, population growth, and trade openness significantly worsens environmental quality in Kenya. Natural resources significantly improve environmental quality in Kenya. According to the results the relationship between CO2 and financial development in Kenya is non-linear suggesting presence of EKC between CO2 and financial development. The empirical results confirm that the Environmental Kuznets curve does not exist between CO2 and economic growth in Kenya in the long run. Short-run results also show that financial development, lagged CO2, FDI, population growth, and trade openness increase CO2 emissions while natural resources reduce it.  Causality results show unidirectional causality running from financial development to environmental quality and from CO2 to GDP. According to the findings, there is evidence of neutrality hypothesis between financial development in Kenya and economic growth. Existence of long run relationship suggests that the government of Kenya needs to implement appropriate environmental policies that reduce pollution during economic growth. The government should set policies and guidelines to the financial sector so that the sector offers credit to firms that reduce air pollution. Keywords: Financial development, economic growth, CO2, Autoregressive distributed lag model, Kenya JEL Classification: E44, C32, Q43, Q56 DOI: 10.7176/JESD/11-12-03 Publication date:June 30th 202

Reality or romantism? Potential of Jatropha to solve energy crisis and improve livelihoods

This paper evaluates the potential of Jatropha curcas Linnaeus (Jatropha) as an alternative source of energy for rural households. The plant is said to have potential to diversify rural incomes, reclaim unproductive lands, reduce importation of fossil fuels, and consequently accumulation of green house gases in the atmosphere. A cost benefit analysis was employed to evaluate the feasibility of producing Jatropha as a biodiesel feedstock in relation to other crops in Kwale district. An IRR of 11 percent, BCR of 0.62 and a NPV of (28267.56) showed that production of Jatropha is not feasible at the moment. However we conclude that the plant has a potential to achieve its intended purpose if there is coordination in research and development along the Jatropha value chain and if technical and financial support is accorded to actors at the production level of the chain.Crop Production/Industries,

Unlocking Potentials through Innovation and Entrepreneurship in Kenyan County Governments

Since the promulgation of the (Government of Kenya , 2010), there have been many changes in Kenya. The greatest of these changes is devolution which has been received with mixed reaction. With the onset of County governments, the constitution demands that each county despite their diversity takes responsibility of running their affairs to meet the objectives of devolution. This calls for change in perception in governance, hence innovation and entrepreneurship is mandatory through embracing new ideas, new ways of doing things and technology towards unlocking the county potential for sustainable devolution. This paper therefore discusses how innovation and entrepreneurship can support county governments in improving governance and utility of available resource in serving people for effective devolution. Innovation and entrepreneurship promotes institutional competiveness and boosts development. Innovative ways would encourage entrepreneurship that matches the current global needs and ensures Kenyan counties met its obligation and can compete favourably with other nations. Keywords: Innovation, entrepreneurship, devolution, unlocking potentia

An Analysis of the Pragmatic Functions of Vague Language in Ekegusii

This paper provides an analysis of the pragmatic function of vague language use in everyday interactions in Ekegusii. The paper analyses the types of meanings conveyed by referring expressions such as: The plural “you” for singular reference, The inclusive “we”, The pronoun “they”, Down toners and Placeholders. The analysis applies Grice’s (1975) Cooperative Principle and Brown and Levinson’s (1987) Politeness Principle. The paper maintains that vague language is not a deviation from precision and clarity, but that it has a critical role that cannot be achieved through precise language. Key words: Vague language, pragmatics, meaning, Ekegusi