Perceptual and Contextual Sources of Athletic Training Confidence: The Transition to Professional Entry Level Master’s Programs

Introduction: The shift of athletic training education from undergraduate degrees to professional master’s degrees and the prominence of computer-based credentialing may impact the hands-on experiences beneficial for developing confidence in athletic training competency domains. Health care provider confidence is critical for clinical skill development, performance and enhancing patient care. Purpose: To examine domain specific efficacy, its sources, learning contexts (i.e., classroom, laboratory, clinical settings) and clinical characteristics by program types. Method: Descriptive, cross-sectional design where 178 Athletic Trainers (AT; age 24.25 + 3.76, n = 72 male, n = 106 female) participated in the study (Master’s Program (MP) = 38; Undergraduate Program (UG) = 140). A questionnaire examining athletic training confidence was administered throughout multiple universities with accredited athletic training programs. Background characteristics, certification exam attempts, and programmatic characteristics were also ascertained. Results: Clinical settings were similar in both program types and there were few differences in domain-specific efficacy. Imaginal experiences, verbal persuasion and emotional states sources of efficacy differentiated master’s from undergraduate students. Conclusions: Sources of efficacy (e.g. vicarious experiences) occur naturally in athletic training educational settings; however, these sources need to be utilized. Educators should be informed about efficacy sources and devise strategies targeting each source for implementation across evolving learning contexts

Effects of a 4-Week Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Intervention on Psychological and Performance Variables in Student-Athletes: A Pilot Study

PURPOSE: To examine the effects of a 4-week biofeedback intervention on coherence, psychological, and performance variables in collegiate student-athletes. METHODS: Thirteen student-athletes were randomly assigned to the intervention (one weekly biofeedback session for 4-weeks) or control group (no sessions). Data were collected at pre and post-intervention using weekly averaged coherence scores, psychological measures for depression, arousal, stress, resiliency, and performance outcome measures. RESULTS: A 3 (Time) x 4 (Week average) repeated measures ANOVA was independently conducted to examine differences between time and weekly coherence average for coherence scores. No significant differences were found for “at rest”, pre, or post-practice coherence scores. A 2 (treatment group) x 4 (Week) repeated measures ANOVAs were independently conducted to examine differences between treatment groups and week average for performance, resilience, and recovery. Significant differences were found for performance by time (p = .029). For the psychological variables, 2 (treatment group) X 2 (Time) repeated measures ANOVAs were independently conducted to examine differences between treatment group and time for CESD, AD-ACL, CSSS, and the ASSQ sleep score and no significant differences were found. CONCLUSIONS: Overall the biofeedback intervention did not improve coherence, psychological, or performance variables between the groups. While the biofeedback intervention did not show significant changes in this pilot study, there is potential for future research to address male participants and a change in timing during the season

Fit to Play? Health-Related Fitness Levels of Youth Athletes: A Pilot Study

A recent National Strength and Conditioning Association position statement suggests that many youth are not prepared for the physical demands of sport. The purpose of this study was to compare health-related fitness (HRF) of youth athletes with normative findings from the general population. We recruited 136 athletes (63 male and 73 female athletes) aged 11-19 (16.01 ± 1.35) years and collected HRF (body composition, cardiorespiratory endurance, musculoskeletal strength and endurance). Results were categorized based on FITNESSGRAM® standards and compared with Canadian youth general population normative data. Most male athletes were classified as "needs improvement" for cardiorespiratory and muscular endurance, and body mass index (BMI). Conversely, most female athletes were at or above the "healthy fitness zone" for all measures. Male athletes at both age groups (11-14, 15-19; p < 0.001) and female athletes aged 11-14 (p < 0.05) demonstrated lower cardiorespiratory endurance compared with Canadian general population. Female athletes (both age groups) demonstrated greater muscular strength, and male athletes (age, 15-19 years) demonstrated lower BMI than the Canadian general population. The results are concerning as male athletes demonstrated poorer HRF compared with the general population. Although most female athletes were within healthy ranges, a portion of them were still at risk. Considering the demands sport places on the body, evaluating HRF is paramount for performance and injury prevention but more importantly for overall health. Youth sport and strength coaches should evaluate and aim to enhance HRF, as participation in sport does not guarantee adequate HRF. Promoting long-term athletic development and life-long health should be a priority in youth

Functional Movement Screen(TM) in Youth Sport Participants: Evaluating the Proficiency Barrier for Injury

Background & Purpose: The number of youth participating in sport increases yearly; however, the evaluation of youths’ movement ability and preparedness for sport remains inadequate or neglected. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS™) is an assessment of an individual’s movement quality that has been utilized to evaluate risk of injury in collegiate and professional sport; however, there is minimal support regarding the predictive value of the screen in youth sport. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the mean and distribution of FMS™ performance in sport participants age 11-18, and to evaluate the existence of a composite FMS™ score proficiency barrier to predict injury risk. Study Design: Prospective cohort study. Methods: One hundred, thirty-six participants (63 male, 73 female) age 11 to 18 years (16.01 + 1.35) were recruited from local schools and sport organizations. The FMS™ was administered prior to each participant’s competitive season and scored by researchers who demonstrated reliability in assessments derived from the screen (κw = 0.70 to 1). Injury data were collected by the participants’ Athletic Trainer over one season. An injury was defined as any physical insult or harm resulting from sports participation that required an evaluation from a health professional with time modified or time lost from sport participation. Results: Females scored significantly higher than males for mean FMS™ composite score (t=14.40; m=12.62; p < 0.001), and on individual measures including: the hurdle step (t=1.91; m=1.65; p < 0.001), shoulder mobility (t=2.68; m=2.02; p < 0.001), active straight leg raise (t=2.32; m=1.87; p < 0.001), and the rotary stability components (t=1.91; m=1.65; p < 0.05). Two FMS™ composite scores (score <14 and <15) significantly increased the odds of injury (OR=2.955). When adjusting for sport, there was no score relating to increased odds of injury. Conclusion: Dysfunctional movement as identified by the FMS™ may be related to increased odds of injury during the competitive season in youth athletes. Consideration of an individual’s movement within the context of their sport is necessary, as each sport and individual have unique characteristics. Addressing movement dysfunction may aid in injury reduction and potentially improve sport performance. Level of Evidence: 1b. Key Words: Functional movement screen, injury prevention, movement system, movement quality, youth spor

An Examination of Depression, Anxiety, and Self-Esteem in Collegiate Student-Athletes

Mental health research exists for student-athletes in the areas of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem prevalence. However, updated prevalence rates and assessment of risks across sports, academic status, and genders are needed. Filling the gaps in research assists in the creation of patient-centered mental health screening and interventions designed for student-athletes. Therefore, the purpose is to examine the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem in collegiate student-athletes and differences between sex, academic status, and sport type, and identify associations for risks. Using a cross-sectional design, collegiate student-athletes were surveyed to assess for risks of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. With the use of SPSS, Chi-square analyses and multinomial logistic regressions were used. Student-athletes (22.3%) were at risk for depression, anxiety (12.5%), and low self-esteem (8%). No significant differences were found for sex, academic status, and sport type for depression or self-esteem; however, significant differences occurred for state and trait anxiety by sex. A significant association for depression and anxiety risk was found with females at risk. Depression and anxiety are present within student-athletes, regardless of sport type. Females are at a higher risk; however, all student-athletes would benefit from the creation of validated, patient-centered mental health screenings and psychotherapeutic interventions

Investigation of Eating Disorder Risk and Body Image Dissatisfaction among Female Competitive Cheerleaders

Social agents associated with cheerleading environments are increasingly linked to body image dissatisfaction (BID) and eating disorders (ED). This study examined ED risk across team type, squad type, and position. An additional purpose determined BID in clothing type (daily clothing, midriff uniform, and full uniform), and meta-perceptions from the perspective of peers (MP peers), parents (MP parents), and coaches (MP coaches). Female cheerleaders (n = 268) completed an online survey which included demographics, the Eating Attitudes Test-26, and pathogenic behavior questions. Body image perceptions were assessed by using the Sex-Specific Figural Stimuli Silhouettes. Overall, 34.4% of cheerleaders (n = 268; mean age: 17.9 &plusmn; 2.7 years) exhibited an ED risk. Compared to All-Star cheerleaders, college cheerleaders demonstrated significant higher ED risk (p = 0.021), dieting subscale scores (p = 0.045), and laxative, diet pill, and diuretic use (p = 0.008). Co-ed teams compared to all-girl teams revealed higher means for the total EAT-26 (p = 0.018) and oral control subscale (p = 0.002). The BID in clothing type revealed that cheerleaders wanted to be the smallest in the midriff option (p &lt; 0.0001, &eta;2 = 0.332). The BID from meta-perception revealed that cheerleaders felt that their coaches wanted them to be the smallest (p &lt; 0.001, &eta;2 = 0.106). Cheerleaders are at risk for EDs and BID at any level. Regarding the midriff uniform, MP from the perspective of coaches showed the greatest difference between perceived and desired body image