Health risk associated with aluminium exposure in groundwater: a cross-sectional study in an Orang Asli village in Jenderam Hilir, Selangor, Malaysia

The purpose of this study was to determine aluminium (Al) concentrations in groundwater used for drinking and cooking and its related health risk among population of 28th Mile Orang Asli village in Jenderam Hilir, Selangor, Malaysia. A total of 100 respondents were recruited, comprising 51 (51.0 %) male and 49 (49.0 %) female residents. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to determine Al concentration, while the LAMOTTE TRACER ORP PockeTester was used to measure pH levels. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. Results showed that Al concentration ranged from 0.041 - 0.136 mg/L with a mean of 0.136 + SD 0.041 mg/L, hence the values obtained were below the standard value (0.2 mg/L). pH levels ranged from 3.82 to 5.84, with a mean of 4.163 + SD 0.411, which is acidic and below the range permitted by the health authorities. The acidic nature may have an impact on the Al concentration in the water. The Hazard Index (HI) was found to be less than 1, thus there was no health risk of Al exposure in drinking water for the respondents involved. The study area was considered safe from having health risk associated with Al exposure

Knowledge on recycling among Orang Asli primary school children in Sekolah Kebangsaan Penderas, Kuala Krau, Pahang

Introduction: Recycling activities are the process of collecting, sorting and reprocessing certain materials which considered as waste into a new product. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess the knowledge of the Orang Asli school children before and after the running of a promotional and educational program on recycling through questionnaires. Method: A questionnaire-based study was conducted to assess the knowledge of the Orang Asli school children on recycling. Result: Overall, respondents have had some knowledge about recycling before joining this program. An increase in knowledge were evident after they sat for the program. Most of them acquired the knowledge through mass media. Broadcast media were important avenues to obtain information on recycling. Respondents were more knowledgeable to recycle items that were visually available to them. Conclusion: Parents, school authorities and society at large has the responsibility to educate children at the earliest possible age on the importance of recycling

Perceived oral hygiene habits amongst 16-year-old school children

This study was aimed at assessing dental habits among 16-year-old schoolchildren A total of 116 16-year-old schoolchildren took part in this survey, which was part of a larger study to assess dental fluorosis occurrence among the respondents. A questionnaire was given to each respondent prior to getting written consent from the parents. They were asked three categories of questions pertaining to habits of oral hygiene, firstly the number of tooth-brushings per day, then the quantity of toothpaste used per brushing, and lastly the number of visits to the dentist per year. From 116 respondents, 32 (27.6%) were males and 84 (72.4%) were females. On the first question, 100 respondents (86.2%) used fluoridated toothpastes while the remaining 16 (13.8%) used non-fluoridated toothpastes For the second question, 8 respondents (6.8%) brushed their teeth once per day, 59 (51.0%) twice per day, 35 (30.1%) three times per day and 14 (12.1%) 4 times per day About the question on quantity of toothpaste used for brushing (question 3), 25 respondents (21.5%) used ½ pea size, 66 (56.8%) used 1 pea-size, 24 (20.9%) used 2 pea-size and 1 (0.8%) used 3 pea-size. For the final question (question 4), 43 (37.1%) had never had any dental visits all their life, 33 (28.4%) had one dental visit per year, 30 (25.9%) had twice-a-year visit, 4 (3.4%) had 3 visit, 3 (2.6%) had 4 times-a-year visit and 3 (2.6%) had more than 4 times-a-year visit. This study concluded that more oral health education programs should be organized to improve the understanding of oral hygiene and the importance of dental visits in order to sustain a healthy oral life for a lifetime especially for the respondents

Health risk assessment after exposure to aluminium in drinking water between two different villages.

A cross-sectional study was conducted at Mukim Parit Lubok (MPL) and Parit Raja (PR), Batu Pahat, Malaysia. The main objective of this study was to determine the aluminium concentration in drinking water and to perform health risk assessment prediction among respondents from these two residential areas. A total of 100 respondents were selected from the study areas based on inclusive and exclusive criteria. Two duplicates of treated water samples were taken from each respondent’s house using 200mL high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles and 0.4 mL (69%) pure concentrated nitric acid were added as a preservative. Aluminium concentrations were analyzed using a Lambda 25 UV/V spectrophotometer. The result showed that aluminium concentration in drinking water from MPL was 0.18 ± 0.022 mg/L and 0.22 ± 0.044 mg/L for PR. Statistical analysis showed that 14 (28%) water samples collected from MPL and 35 (70%) from PR recorded concentration of aluminium above the standard limit set by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia for drinking water guideline (0.2 mg/L). The mean value of Chronic Daily Intake (CDI) of aluminium in drinking water from PR (0.00707 mg/kg/day) was significantly higher compared to MPL (0.00164 mg/kg/day). Hazard Index (HI) calculation showed that all respondents had “HI” of less than 1. In conclusion, there was an unlikely potential for adverse health effects from aluminium intake in drinking water from both study areas. However, it was necessary for some actions to be taken in order to reduce aluminium levels found in drinking water for both locations

Health risk associated with nitrate exposure from groundwater intake among respondents of Keting Village, Bachok District, Kelantan State, Malaysia

Nitrate is one of the compounds of nitrogen found in the nitrogen cycle that is which originates from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Most rural areas in Kelantan state still depend on well water as their primary water source. Their main economic activity is agriculture which uses high amounts of nitrate fertilizer to nurture their crops. The increased use of nitrate fertilizers has a possible risk factor associated to health problems such as methemoglobinemia and cancers. Health risk assessment can be conducted to quantify the probability of harmful effects of nitrate to individuals or populations from certain human activities. To determine levels of nitrate in groundwater and to perform health risk assessment among respondents in Keting village, Bachok district, Kelantan state. A total of 47 respondents were chosen for this study and groundwater samples in duplicates were collected from the respondents’ houses. The samples were then analyzed by using a portable Hanna Instrument multimeter model HI98191 and probe model HI4113. while a set of questionnaires were used to collect information for health risk assessment of the exposure. Nitrate levels in groundwater did not exceed the maximum concentration value of Drinking Water Quality Standard (44.3 ppm nitrate – NO3) with a mean ± sd of 5.34 ± 4.94 (ppm). Spearman’s rho correlation analysis shows that only depth of well (meter) is correlated (r = - 0.348) to nitrate levels (p<0.05). The Hazard Quotient (HQ)for the study population was less than 1. In terms of nitrate, the groundwater analyzed in the study area was considered safe for drinking and cooking purposes. The result for HQ indicated that the non-carcinogenic risk related to nitrate was not significant to the study population. However, nitrate levels in drinking water should be concerned by the consumers as it will give bad health impact to them in long-term exposures

Assessment of swimming associated health effects in marine bathing beach: an example from Morib beach (Malaysia)

A survey among beachgoers was conducted to determine the swimming associated health effects experienced and its relationship with beach water exposure behaviour in Morib beach. For beach water exposure behaviour, the highest frequency of visit among the respondents was once a year (41.9%). For ways of water exposure, whole body exposure including head was the highest (38.5%). For duration of water exposure, 30.8% respondents prefer to be in water for about 30 min with low possibilities of accidental ingestion of beach water. A total of 30.8% of beachgoers in Morib beach were reported of having dermal symptoms. Bivariate analysis showed only water activity, water contact and accidental ingestion of beach water showed significant association with swimming associated health effects experienced by swimmers. This study output showed that epidemiological study can be used to identify swimming associated health effects in beach water exposed to faecal contamination

Knowledge and perception of fluoride in drinking water among residents of Precinct 9, Putrajaya, Malaysia

The knowledge and beliefs on the presence of fluoride in drinking water, its purpose and the associated health risks aids in equate water fluoridation and effective prevention programs. Water fluoridation is a safe, effective, and necessary method where adequate doses of fluoride is added into drinking water supplies with the target of assisting in tooth restoration and preventing tooth decay and dental caries. Therefore, this study identifies the level of knowledge and perception of fluoride in drinking water among residents living in Precinct 9, Putrajaya Methods: A cross-sectional, self-administered online questionnaire was used to examine knowledge and perception of fluoride in drinking water of 240 Precinct 9 residents. Descriptive analysis was applied for socio-demographic data and Chi-square was used to compare discrete data. All data obtained were further analyzed using SPSS Version 23.0. Results: The highest frequency (percentage) of residents were 213 (88.8%), aged 18-64 years old, 141 (58.8%) female, 214 (89.2%) with tertiary education background and 125 (51.1%) of them lived in Precinct 9 for more than 10 years. Of all participants, 137 (57.1%) and 83 (34.6%) have poor knowledge and medium perception regarding fluoride in drinking water respectively. There was a significant association between those with higher education level with knowledge (p=0.02) and perception (p=0.005) where they were more likely to know about overall fluoride in drinking water. Conclusion: Most participants had limited knowledge and negative perception of fluoride beyond a general sense it was beneficial. It appears that in moving forward to receive the water fluoridation support will need to attend to the challenge of anti-fluoride sentiment influence

Knowledge, attitude, and awareness (KAA) regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among rural residents in Kerian, Perak

Introduction: To study knowledge, attitude, and awareness (KAA) regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among rural residents in three villages in Kerian, Perak. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 165 residents aged 18 years old and above. All respondents were sampled through cluster sampling. A set of validated questionnaires from previous studies consisting of four sections were used to access the level of KAA. Data analysis was performed by using SPSS Version 22. Results: Overall, the study found that knowledge (40.0%), attitude (76.0%), awareness (59.0%) were at moderate levels. Chi-square analysis showed that there was an association between level of knowledge and household income (X2 = 20.765, p=0.004) and gender (X2 =7.263, p=0.027). However, there was no association between age and level of knowledge (X2 =8.599, p=0.335). In addition, there was a significant association between knowledge and attitude (p=0.006, r=0.211), and knowledge and awareness (p=0.009, r=0.203). Both associations showed a poor correlation between them. Conclusion: This study concludes that as knowledge level improves, so does attitude and awareness. The media plays a important role as a medium for behavioral changes communication among the community. Continuous education through health promotion programs is needed to ensure information regarding WASH is distributed fairly among the community

Microbial contamination of drinking water from water coolers in Universiti Putra Malaysia residential colleges

Introduction: Water coolers are popular in office buildings and commercial stores. This source of drinking water has the potential to cause waterborne outbreaks, especially in sensitive and immuno-compromised subjects. The main reason for this research was because the majority of students preferred to consume water from water coolers due to factors such as convenience and accessibility. Methodology: Two water samples from water coolers from all fourteen residential colleges in Universiti Putra Malaysia were collected and analysed using USEPA 8367 filtration membrane method in order to detect the presence of E. coli and total coliform. Results: Total coliform were detected in 93.0% of the samples collected. Only samples from one college had E. coli (0.14%). The types of filters used in water coolers did not influence the presence of bacteria because total coliform was detected in all samples using either sediment filters or stage filters. Only samples from one college using sediment filter was present with E. coli. Total number of respondents was 375. For frequency of consumption and the experience of getting diseases, there were no significant relationship because 74 respondents who drank less than three times a day also contracted diseases related to E. coli or total coliform, and there were 99 respondents who did not developed any disease even though they drank more than three times a day. There were no significant relationship between the presence of total coliform and the number of respondents experienced getting diseases. Conclusion: Total coliform were detected in nearly all samples. Residential colleges must ensure the recommended periodic maintenance of water coolers so as to safeguard the health of students using this facility

Nitrate concentration in groundwater: a cross-sectional study in three villages near paddy fields in Bachok district, Kelantan during the harvest season

Nitrate fertilizer is extensively used to produce healthy crops on a wide scale, and paddy planting is no exception. Nitrate that is not used by plants is able to penetrate the soil and end up in groundwater. This, if not checked, can give rise to health problems including infant methemoglobinaemia, a disease where hemoglobin in erythrocytes are changed into methemoglobin by nitrite which, in turn, makes it unable to transport oxygen to body cells. Nitrite is formed from ingested nitrate that is altered by bacteria present in the infant’s stomach. This cross-sectional study was conducted in February 2019 for 2 weeks’ observation during the paddy pre-planting season, and a total of 149 wells across three villages were sampled for nitrate. Readings were compared to the Drinking Water Quality Standard stated by the Ministry of Health, Malaysia. The maximum acceptable value for nitrate in drinking water is 45 mg/L nitrate (NO3-). The three villages, namely Keting, Kuchelong and Telaga Ara, were chosen as they are located near paddy fields and water from wells were used for drinking and cooking without filtration. It was found that only one (0.67%) of the wells had nitrate above the maximum acceptable value (56.85 mg/L NO3-). This highest value was found in Telaga Ara village and the location of the well was 50m from the nearest paddy fields. In Kuchelong village, the mean nitrate level was 5.10 +0.85 mg/L with a range of 0.73 to 27.10 mg/L. While in Telaga Ara village, the mean nitrate levels was 10.52 +1. 24 mg/L with a range of 1.67 to 56.85 mg/L. Mean nitrate level in Keting village was 5.34 + 4.94 mg/L with a range of 0.40 -23.65 mg/L. In general, nitrate levels were found to be below the maximum acceptable value in the villages concerned and therefore did not pose any health risks to users. Periodic assessment of nitrate in groundwater is still important as to ensure the levels remain below the acceptable value, and in turn, safeguard the health of its users