Investigation on Ganoderma Infection in Oil Palm Based on the Cultural Characteristics and Somatic Compatibility: A Case Study in Sandakan, Sabah

Sustainability of the oil palm in Malaysia is threatened by Ganoderma species causing stem rot. There were many studies conducted to understand the etiology and epidemiology of the disease in West Malaysia, however none of them reported the situation in Sabah, one of the leading producers. Moreover, the mode of Ganoderma spread in oil palm is least understood. Thus, the aims for this study were to investigate the infection mode of Ganoderma species in oil palm based on the in-vitro cultural characteristics and somatic compatibility. A total of 21 Ganoderma basidiocarps were isolated from stem rot infected palms in an estate in Sandakan, Sabah. These samples were obtained (i) within infected palms; (ii) among infected neighbouring palms; and (iii) five clusters of infected palms. In-vitro morphology of the Ganoderma isolates was characterized based on 21 characteristics via a dendrogram. Somatic compatibility was accessed to investigate the genetic heterogenicity. There was a narrow variability (93 to 100%) in terms of the cultural characteristics, and the variations exhibited among the isolates regardless of their origin. The isolates may exhibit similar phenotype, but not necessarily have similar genotype, and vice versa. Based on the somatic compatibility test, it was found that all pairings showed incompatible reactions except in self-pairing and between isolates C5P3-1 and C5P3-2 which were isolated from the same infected palm (genetically identical). These findings indicated that infection of Ganoderma in a single palm and neighbouring palms generally were caused by multiple unidentical strains. This further concludes that spread of Ganoderma species in oil palm via rootto-root contact is uncommon. Thus, the basidiospores may play an important role in the disease epidemiology, and further research and management strategies of the disease should focus on this

Aggressiveness of Ganoderma boninense and G. zonatum isolated from upper- and basal stem rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in Malaysia

Currently, the most known devastating oil palm disease throughout South-east Asia is basal stem rot (BSR) caused by Ganoderma boninense. However, there is insufficient information on G. zonatum which also has been associated with the BSR, and upper stem rot (USR). Thus, this study reports pathological symptoms and degree of aggressiveness amongst G. zonatum and G. boninense of USR and BSR on oil palm seedlings. All the Ganoderma isolates tested showed positive signs of infection on the seedlings at 12 and up to 24 weeks after inoculation. However, the symptoms of infection on the seedlings were indistinguishable amongst the Ganoderma species tested. In fact, they showed significantly different degree of aggressiveness in terms of area under disease progress curve (AUDPC), epidemic rate, severity of foliar symp­toms (SFS), dis­ease severity index (DSI), stem bole necrosis and primary roots necrosis. The present findings suggested that G. zonatum of USR was the most aggressive, followed by G. zonatum and G. boninense of BSR, and G. boninense of USR was the least aggressive. Hence, a new mechanism of control strategies is urgently required to con­tain the disease from spreading especially for USR and also for G. zonatum in Malaysia

Corn husk as lignocellulosic agricultural waste for the cultivation of Pleurotus florida mushroom

The growth and yield of Pleurotus florida mushroom were evaluated in media with corn husk and wood sawdust substrates. Five formulations of substrates, namely 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of wood sawdust substituted with corn husk, were tested with 0% corn husk or 100% wood sawdust serving as the control. The total number of fruiting bodies, the number of effective fruiting bodies, the total fresh weight and dry weight of the mushroom, and biological efficiency were significantly increased with as low as 25% corn husk in the substrate, and they showed a significant increasing trend as the composition of corn husk in the substrate increased. Superior yield was produced by P. florida cultivated in 100% corn husk, where the total number of fruiting bodies, the number of effective fruiting bodies, the total fresh weight, and the total dry weight of the mushroom were 4.8 times, 5.4 times, 4.6 times, and 5.4 times greater than the control, respectively. The biological efficiency of P. florida increased gradually from 8.8% in the control to 51.37% in the 100% corn husk substrate. Therefore, corn husk could be exploited as a substitute or alternative substrate to wood sawdust for more sustainable production of P. florida

Nutritive composition of oil palm empty fruit bunch fibers treated with mycelia culture of Lingzhi (Ganoderma lucidum) as a potential ruminant feedstuff

Efforts were made to reduce the wide gap between requirement and availability of local feed by having a better utilization strategy of unconventional feed resources. Malaysia is one of the world’s largest palm oil producers. The process of extraction of palm oil produces empty fruit bunch (EFB), which is considered as waste product. Biological delignification using white rot fungi (WRF) was reported to enhance the feeding values of agricultural by-products used in ruminant rations by fungal degradation of lignin. Steam sterilization before fungi inoculation is known to affect substrate composition. Thus, this study was conducted to evaluate the effect of steam sterilization of oil palm EFB fibres on the nutritive composition of oil palm EFB fibres treated with mycelia culture of Ganoderma lucidum at different incubation periods as a potential ruminant feedstuff. Shredded oil palm EFB fibres were prepared as sterilized substrate in polypropylene bags and inoculated with mycelia culture of G. lucidum. The uninoculated sterilized substrate was compared with unsterilized substrate. All inoculated substrates were incubated starting from week 2, 4, 6, 8,10 and 12 with 4 replications for each period. All samples were analysed for their nutritive compositions. Result showed that only crude protein and cellulose content were significantly changed after steam sterilization process where crude protein was reduced from 6.07% to 1.97% and cellulose increased from 22.35% to 27.52%. All nutritive composition analysed (dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, ash, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) for oil palm EFB fibres treated with G. lucidum showed significant changes across incubation period. Its lignocellulose components such as lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose were significantly reduced by 21%, 20% and 35%, respectively after 12 weeks of incubation. These results suggest that oil palm EFB fibres treated with mycelial culture of G. lucidum have potential to be utilized as ruminant feedstuff. Ganoderma lucidum was proven to have the ability in delignification of lignin in oil palm EFB fibres. Exploitation of this biological treatment could possibly maximize the use of locally available agro-industrial by-products to increase the production of local cost-effective feed for ruminants

Investigation on Ganoderma Infection in Oil Palm Based on the Cultural Characteristics and Somatic Compatibility: A Case Study in Sandakan, Sabah

Sustainability of the oil palm in Malaysia is threatened by Ganoderma species causing stem rot. There were many studies conducted to understand the etiology and epidemiology of the disease in West Malaysia, however none of them reported the situation in Sabah, one of the leading producers. Moreover, the mode of Ganoderma spread in oil palm is least understood. Thus, the aims for this study were to investigate the infection mode of Ganoderma species in oil palm based on the in-vitro cultural characteristics and somatic compatibility. A total of 21 Ganoderma basidiocarps were isolated from stem rot infected palms in an estate in Sandakan, Sabah. These samples were obtained (i) within infected palms; (ii) among infected neighbouring palms; and (iii) five clusters of infected palms. In-vitro morphology of the Ganoderma isolates was characterized based on 21 characteristics via a dendrogram. Somatic compatibility was accessed to investigate the genetic heterogenicity. There was a narrow variability (93 to 100%) in terms of the cultural characteristics, and the variations exhibited among the isolates regardless of their origin. The isolates may exhibit similar phenotype, but not necessarily have similar genotype, and vice versa. Based on the somatic compatibility test, it was found that all pairings showed incompatible reactions except in self-pairing and between isolates C5P3-1 and C5P3-2 which were isolated from the same infected palm (genetically identical). These findings indicated that infection of Ganoderma in a single palm and neighbouring palms generally were caused by multiple unidentical strains. This further concludes that spread of Ganoderma species in oil palm via rootto-root contact is uncommon. Thus, the basidiospores may play an important role in the disease epidemiology, and further research and management strategies of the disease should focus on this

Association of copper and zinc levels in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) to the spatial distribution of Ganoderma species in the plantations on peat

Nutrients are essential for normal physiological processes in plants, and they play important roles in defence mechanisms against pathogens. Oil palms cultivated on peat are more prone to nutrient deficiency, especially micronutrients, and this may affect their susceptibility toGanoderma species, the major threat to the sustainability of oil palm throughout South-East Asia. This study was conducted to investigate the association of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in mature oil palm to the spatial distribution of Ganoderma species in the plantations on peat. Foliar samples (frond 17) of oil palm from two plantations (Betong and Miri) on peat in Sarawak, Malaysia, were collected based on the spatial distribution pattern of Ganoderma, and total Cu and Zn were quantified spectrometrically. The experiment was conducted twice at a 1-year interval. The concentrations of Cu and Zn were significantly lower in oil palms from infected areas in contrast to those from uninfected areas. In addition, oil palms in infected areas in Miri suffered Cu and Zn deficiencies. Furthermore, Cu and Zn were significantly lower in the oil palms in Miri that had higher Ganoderma occurrence, as compared to those in Betong, which had significantly higher Cu and Zn but lower Ganoderma occurrence

Association of copper and zinc levels in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) to the spatial distribution of Ganoderma species in the plantations on peat

Nutrients are essential for normal physiological processes in plants, and they play important roles in defence mechanisms against pathogens. Oil palms cultivated on peat are more prone to nutrient deficiency, especially micronutrients, and this may affect their susceptibility toGanoderma species, the major threat to the sustainability of oil palm throughout South-East Asia. This study was conducted to investigate the association of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in mature oil palm to the spatial distribution of Ganoderma species in the plantations on peat. Foliar samples (frond 17) of oil palm from two plantations (Betong and Miri) on peat in Sarawak, Malaysia, were collected based on the spatial distribution pattern of Ganoderma, and total Cu and Zn were quantified spectrometrically. The experiment was conducted twice at a 1-year interval. The concentrations of Cu and Zn were significantly lower in oil palms from infected areas in contrast to those from uninfected areas. In addition, oil palms in infected areas in Miri suffered Cu and Zn deficiencies. Furthermore, Cu and Zn were significantly lower in the oil palms in Miri that had higher Ganoderma occurrence, as compared to those in Betong, which had significantly higher Cu and Zn but lower Ganoderma occurrence

Pencapaian dan perkembangan terkini pekebun kecil sawit di Malaysia

Sejarah besar negara telah dicatat apabila tanaman sawit mula diusahakan secara komersial di Estet Tannamaran, Kuala Selangor pada 1917. Sehingga kini, industri sawit di Malaysia telah berusia JOO tahun dan telah menjadi sektor pertanian terpenting negara. Sawit merupakan antara tanaman minyak sayuran utama dunia dengan sumbangan sebanyak 72 .5 juta tan atau 38% kepada bekalan minyak sayuran dunia pada 2017. Pada tahun yang sama, Malaysia telah menghasilkan sebanyak 20 .5 juta tan minyak mentah daripada kawasan tanaman seluas 5.81 juta hektar dengan kadar pengeluaran sebanyak 3.4 tan minyak mentah per hektar setahun. Sehingga kini, hampir 40% atau seluas 2 .26 juta hektar daripada keseluruhan kawasan penanaman sawit di Malaysia diusahakan oleh peke bun kecil ( ~680 000 pekebun kecil) iaitu pekebun kecil persendirian, dan tersusun seperti FELDA, FELCRA, RISDA, skim agensi kerajaan, dan skim negeri. lni menunjukkan industri sawit memberi kesan sosioekonomi yang besar kepada pekebun kecil dan mereka juga memberi sumbangan yang signifikan terhadap ekonomi negara. Harga buah tandan segar (BTS) yang menarik dan stabil telah menarik minat pekebun untuk terus bergiat dalam industri ini. Lembaga Kemajuan Tanah Persekutuan (FELDA) yang ditubuhkan pada 1956 dengan objektif membasmi kemiskinan melalui penanaman sawit merupakan skim pekebun kecil terbesar di Malaysia. FELDA telah berjaya melaksanakan projek-projek pembangunan tanah dan aktiviti pertanian, perindustrian dan sosioekonomi dengan membangunkan 317 buah rancangan yang melibatkan seramai 112 635 orang pekebun kecil. Dengan amalan mampan yang diusahakan, FELDA telah berjaya menjadi organisasi pekebun kecil yang pertama di dunia yang memperoleh Pensijilan Meja Bulat Minyak Sawit Mampan (RSPO) pada 2010. Sedar akan sumbangan pekebun kecil terhadap industri sawit Malaysia, kerajaan terus berusaha untuk meningkatkan taraf hidup dan sosioekonomi penduduk luar bandar dengan menyalurkan pelbagai bantuan melalui Lembaga Minyak Sawit Malaysia (MPOB), antaranya ialah khidmat nasihat oleh pegawai Tunjuk Ajar dan Nasihat Sawit (TUNAS), dan pelbagai skim bantuan seperti Tanam Baru Sawit Pekebun Kecil (TBSPK), Tanam Semula Sawit Pekebun Kecil (TSSPK), lnsentif Integrasi Tanaman dengan Sawit (!Ta), dan Insentif Integrasi Ternakan dengan Sawit (/Te). Usaha kerajaan melalui Lembaga Minyak Sawit Malaysia (MPOB) tersebut telah memanfaatkan seramai 50 098 orang pekebun kecil dengan keluasan kebun berjumlah 116 115 ha. Antara cabaran terkini pekebun kecil dan industri sawit Malaysia ialah Pensijilan Minyak Sawit Mampan Malaysia (MSPO) yang bakal diwajibkan mulai 31 Disember 2019. Dalam merealisasikan usaha ini, kerajaan melalui MPOB telah mengelompokkan pekebun sawit persendirian di bawah Kelompok Minyak Sawit Mampan (SPOC) untuk menerapkan amalan pertanian baik (GAP)

Epidemiology and etiology of ganoderma upper and basal stem rot in oil palm (elaeis guineensis jacq.) on peat in Sarawak, Malaysia

Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is the world’s most important oil producing crop which is mostly cultivated in Southeast Asia. The sustainability of oil palm is threatened by Ganoderma species that cause upper stem rot (USR) and basal stem rot (BSR). Basal stem rot is a prominent disease of oil palm, while little is known about USR. Lack of knowledge in terms of epidemiology and etiology of the diseases may lead to inaccurate disease control strategies. A study was conducted in oil palm plantations on peat in Sarawak, Malaysia, namely, Sessang Estate in Betong and Sungai Balim Estate in Miri. A total of 46 isolates of Ganoderma species from the USR- and BSR-infected palms were identified using multiplex PCR, and their in-vitro cultural and basidiospore morphological characteristics were investigated. It was found that both USR and BSR were associated with similar pathogens, where G. zonatum (71.7%) was dominant, followed by G. boninense (26.1%) and G. miniatocinctum (2.2%). This suggests that G. zonatum may have played a more vital role in the epidemiology of the disease than previously believed. All samples were found incompatible based on somatic compatibility test which indicated genetic heterogeneity of Ganoderma species in oil palm plantation and was suggestive of disease spread via spore dispersal that generated new genetically distinct individuals. There were also significant variations within and between Ganoderma species and no distinct relationship were found between species, disease types or geographical origins in terms of their cultural morphology and basidiospore characteristics. This suggests that any of the Ganoderma isolates found in this study have similar possibility of either causing USR or BSR. The pathogenic capability and aggressiveness of Ganoderma species were assessed based on external and internal infection symptoms using artificial inoculation on oil palm seedlings throughout 24 weeks period. All 46 Ganoderma samples tested were confirmed to be pathogenic to oil palm. Among them, G. zonatum isolated from USR-infected palms showed superior aggressiveness as compared with others with average foliar symptoms severity (FSS), disease severity index (DSI), stem bole lesion and primary root decay up to 33.18%, 43.78%, 42.20% and 48.55%, respectively. Hence, besides the prominent G. boninense and BSR, more studies should emphasize on G. zonatum and USR for more effective disease management since it was found as an increasingly important pathogen and disease in oil palm plantations, especially on peat areas in Sarawak. The infection of USR and BSR were mainly confirmed based on appearance of Ganoderma basidiomata on the stem, while the point of infection on the stem was the distinctive characteristic between them, where infection of Ganoderma species about one meter above ground indicated USR, while that at the base indicating BSR. USR and BSR disease coexisted in both sites, with lower USR (1.14-1.32%) as compared with BSR (3.48-4.01%) in Betong, while higher USR (3.66-6.02%) as compared with BSR (0.87-3.78%) in Miri throughout the study period. This also indicated that Ganoderma species infection in Miri was relatively higher than that in Betong. Geostatistical analysis of the Ganoderma species distribution revealed generally weak spatial dependence (>75%), which indicated that the distribution was random, and related to Ganoderma species spread via basidiospore dispersal at greater distance, instead of root-to-root infection. It was revealed that spatial distribution of Ganoderma species was at relatively greater density in Miri (15.1-100%) as compared with Betong (15.1- 30%). Although the distribution of Ganoderma species were random, the hotspot patterns generated allow site specific disease management as in precision agriculture and aid in sampling programmes for further investigations on the factors attributed to the patterns. Studies on macro- and micronutrients composition in relation to spatial distribution of Ganoderma species revealed that the foliar macro- and micronutrient elements affected the infection of Ganoderma species. Based on the four trials conducted at the two study sites, it was found that higher level of phosphorus (P), and lower and deficient level of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) in oil palms were associated with higher Ganoderma infection. In addition, lower and deficient level of Cu and Zn also could be related to higher Ganoderma infection in Miri as compared with Betong. Furthermore, there was no distinct factor in terms of soil and foliar chemical properties between USR and BSR. Therefore, this finding could be used as general guide to control Ganoderma species by giving more concern on manipulation of P, Cu and Zn level in oil palm plantations generally, and specifically in the two sites in this study for site-specific disease management as in precision agriculture

Characterization and identification of polypore fungi collected from forests in Sandakan, Sabah based on the macro- and micromorphology

Polypore is a group of fungi from the order polyporales that form fruiting bodies with pores or tubes on the underside. Although tropical rainforests are one of the global biodiversity hotspots, but the diversity of polypore fungi has been little examined especially in Sandakan, Sabah. In addition, polypore fungi probably could be exploited as bio-control agents against phytopathogens, and they should be identified. Thus, the objectives of this study were to (i) investigate the macro- and micro-morphological characteristics of polypore fungi; (ii) identify the polypore fungi based on their macro- and micro-morphologies. Fruiting bodies of polypore fungi were collected from Rainforest Discovery Centre (RDC) and Sandakan Rainforest Park (SRP), located in Sandakan, Sabah. In addition, few samples of polypore fungi were obtained from mushroom farms and oil palm estates. A total 35 polypore fungi were collected, their macro-morphologies were characterized based on 47 characteristics of the fruiting bodies, and then isolated using potato dextrose agar (PDA). Moreover, the in-vitro micro-morphologies of the fungi were characterized based on 37 characteristics of the pure cultures. Dendrograms were generated using unweight pair group of arithmetic averages (UPGMA). The macro-morphological characteristics exhibited high variation (20% to 90%) among the fungi. The fungi were categorized into 29 groups at 90% similarity of their macro-morphologies. While for micro-morphology, the fungi were categorized into 32 groups at 100% similarity. The isolates for micro-morphology showed less than 33% dissimilarity among the fungi. These results indicated that most polypore fungi collected are from family Polyporaceae and Ganodermataceae. Among these family, there are about 10 different genera were identified based on their macro- and micro-morphological characteristics. Either the family, genus, or species of 25 out of 35 polypore fungi (71%) were identified and others remain unidentified based on their macro- and micro-morphological characteristics. Further research should be conducted to study the potential uses of the polypore fungi, such as in bio-control against phytopathogens