Mule Logging in Northern Forests of Iran: A Study of Productivity, Cost and Damage to Soil and Seedlings

Animal logging is one of the traditional logging systems in Iran, as in many other areas of the world. In this study, after determination of the work elements, a continuous time study method was used to develop hauling time prediction models for wood hauling by mule for firewood hauling with standard saddles, firewood hauling with special equipment, and pulpwood hauling. The elemental time prediction models are also presented in this paper. The firewood production outputs in billet hauling were 2.135 m^3/h using standard saddles, and 3.275 m^3/h using special equipment. Pulpwood hauling productivity was 1.246 m^3/h. The contract costs for hauling firewood and pulpwood were 1.02 €/m^3 and 1.28 €/m^3, respectively. Soil disturbance was observed on 5.72% of the harvesting area, and the soil compaction in the studied skid trail increased by 14.14%

Quantitative and qualitative assessment of deadwood in natural stands of Hyrcanian forests (Case study: Gorazbon district of Kheyrud, Nowshahr)

The conservation value of Coarse Woody Debris (CWD), as critical microhabitat component, in forest ecosystems led to increasingly expand interests in researches about it. The scientific CWD information had gradually considered by decision-makers for implementing forestry planning. In this study, due to evaluate qualitative and quantitative characters of CWD and its proportion to live standing trees, full callipering method was applied. Data were collected from an unmanaged parcel (parcel no. 37, Gorazbon district, Kheyrud forest) situated in southern slopes of Caspian beech forests. The study site has never been under wood exploitation. The data of CWD (middle diameter ≥ 10 cm) and stand (D.B.H ≥ 7.5 cm) were measured using full calipering method. The results of this study illustrated the average number of live standing trees, snags, and fallen trees were 357, 8, and 26 per ha, respectively. Between all species, hornbeam had the highest volume proportion both in live standing trees and CWD. One fifth of total CWD volume was accounted to sangs and stumps and about half of the total volume was exposure in low degree of decomposition. CWD volume amounted 3.5% of total yield of site study. In summary, total CWD volume is lower than optimal value considered for CWD in temperate forests which sets alarms that any removal of CWD could bring irrecoverable consequences in site study

Disturbance effects on plant diversity and invasive species in western oak communities of Iran (Case study: Dalab Forest, Ilam)

Abstract Changed environmental conditions, reactions of biotic factors and increase in invasive species due to anthropogenic or natural disturbances, will change composition and diversity of plant communities over time. Therefore, measurement of species diversity can be useful for disturbance and ecosystem management analysis .Oak stands of Dalab Park is located 25 km north west of Ilam was selected for invasive plant and species diversity studies and their effects on plant vegetation, due to their different disturbance regimes, including "grazing", "fire" and "control". Information of vegetation, soil and other environmental variables were collected from 77 sample plots, using random sampling method at various disturbance classes. Surface area of sample plots was determined, based on minimal area, using Helical Technique and Area-Species Curve. The size of sampling plots was 16×16 m. for tree and shrub species and 1×1 m. for herbaceous species. Whittaker´s nested plot method was used in order to record the herbaceous species. Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis, Indicator Species Analysis, Canonical Correspondence Analysis and Numerical Index method were applied to classify ecological groups, determine indicator species in each class, identify relationship between environmental factors and the studied plant groups and assess species diversity, respectively. Results showed that t disturbance affected composition and diversity of such forests. Grazing, fire, soil and topographical factors were identified as the most influential factors on plant composition. Fire led to an increase in vegetation into annuals and ruderal species of plant vegetation, including Coronilla scorpoides, Torilis leptophylla,Boissiera squarrosa,Taeniatherum crinitum, Onopordon carduchorum, Cirsium spectabile and Carduus pycnocephalus. Grazing increased mostly frequency of non-palatable and resistant species to grazing and soil compaction, including Bromus tectorum, Picnomon acarna, Stellaria media, Rochelia disperma, Holesteum umbellatum,Euphorbia macroclada, Turgenia latifolia, Rhagadiolus angulosus, and Valerianella vesicaria. Highest richness and diversity of the species was recorded in moderate grazing disturbance and control classes, whereas the lowest richness and diversity was recorded in intense and light grazing which is consistent with the theory of intermediate disturbance

Effect of management intervention on structure of natural stands (Case Study: Gorazbon District of Kheirud Forest)

Appropriate management of forest requires indices that can provide adequate information about forest structure condition and its changes with the least cost and time. In this research, the effect of tree marking on natural stand structure was evaluated in Gorazbon district of Kheirud forest using indices ofspatial and non-spatial distribution. For this purpose, 682 structural groups (trees) were studied from the lower up to the upper boundary of compartment in two rectangular plots. The results showed that the changes of some indices, including mingling, Uniform Angle Index, DBH dominance, DBH differentiation, Pielou segregation, Clark and Evans aggregation, stem per hectare, basal area and diameter at breast height were not significant. Also, the paired t-test results showed non-significant differences for Uniform Angle Index and DBH dominance, whereas the Mingling and DBH differentiation indices showed significant differences, in the two studied sample plot before and after the tree marking. According to the results of this research, one can conclude that the applied indices are able to show the changes in the stand structure over different time studies and they are suitable for comparison of stands. These indices could be useful tools for forest management in close to nature silviculture

Plant associations in Baharbon district of Kheyroud Forest and its relationship to land forms

The aim of this research was to study the plant associations in Baharbon district of Kheyroud Forest (north of Iran) and their relationship to physiographical factors. Determination of plant associations and sub associations were done, using Braun - Blanquet School. For this purpose, 51 releves consisting of 100 m2 area, were located at different sites. The phytosociological data was analyzed by the Factorial Correspondences (AFC) and Classification Ascendant Hierarchique (CAH) methods, using the Anaphyto software. Nine associations consisting of Querco macrantherae-Carpinetum orientalis, Fraxino excelsioris-Aceretum velutini, Parrotio persicae-Quercetum castaneifoliae, Parrotio persicae-Carpinetum betuli, Pterocaryo fraxinifoliae-Alnetum subcordatae, Aceri velutini - Fagetum orientalis, Carpino betuli-Fagetum orientalis, Rusco hyrcani-Fagetum orientalis and Fagetum orientalis were distinguished in this forest. Then relationships between the associations and the landform features were investigated, applying the DCA method and CANOCO 4.5 software. The results showed that although there were significant relationships between the associations and the altitude and the geographical aspects; but there was not significant relationship with the slope gradient

Quantity and quality of deadwood in the mid-successional stage in oriental Beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) stands (Case study: Kheyrood forest, Nowshahr)

Deadwood is widely recog­nized as an extremely important structural and functional component of forest communities. Therefore, understanding its role and dynamics are important to improve forest management strategies in both managed and unmanaged forests. The aim of this study was to analyze the qualitative and quantitative characteristics of dead trees in the mid-succession stage in intact mixed oriental beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) forests of Kheyrood,, Mazandaran province. Three one-ha sample plots were laid out in compartment 310 of Gorazbon district, in which a number of quantitative (diameter at breast height≥7.5cm and height) and qualitative (species, type of deadwood (log or snag) and decay class) characteristics were recorded. Our results indicated the mean volume of deadwood of 37.8 m3 ha-1. In addition, common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) possessed the highest frequency (64%) of the deadwood among the species. The frequency and volume proportions of logs were 74.7% and 69.3%, respectively, and the maximum amount of deadwood was observed in the large timber size (50-75 cm). As conclusion, forest management planning should pass an adequate attention to succession stage and the amount of deadwood to guarantee the health, long lasting productivity and sustainability of forest ecosystem