Optimal synthesis of oil palm eco-industrial town

The oil palm industry plays significant roles in developing Malaysia’s economy, society and environment. Current oil palm industry practices produce millions of tons of oil palm biomass as bio-waste at plantations and mills. Untreated biomass waste leads to environmental problems such as waterways contamination and carbon dioxide emission (CO2). Biomass waste produced reached 150 million tons in 2014, which comprised of decanter cake, boiler ash, empty fruit bunch, palm oil mill effluent, oil palm frond, and oil palm trunk. An oil palm eco-industrial town (EIT) was proposed as a new oil palm industry model to balance both economic and environmental needs by integrating oil palm based industries and community. The main objective of this study was to synthesise oil palm based industries for oil palm EIT by using structural optimisation. In order to achieve the goal, four sub-objectives were identified: (1) to develop a model that can determine the products and biomass-pathways that will give maximum profit to the oil palm EIT, (2) to develop a model that can decide the profitable products and biomass-pathway that will give maximum profit to the oil palm EIT while minimising impacts of CO2 emissions to the environment, (3) to develop a model that is able to do spatial planning of centralised biomass facility, as well as location for spatial development of oil palm EIT, and (4) to develop a multi-period model that can decide the most profitable industries in oil palm EIT for the next 10 year period, taking into consideration the biomass yield based on age of the palm oil tree. A case study of Johor was applied in this research. The developed models were optimised by using General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS) software as an optimisation tool. The developed models verified that the community and oil palm based industries can be integrated via oil palm EIT concept. The developed model named as the Economic Optimisation Model (EOM) found that the maximum profit that can be achieved by oil palm EIT was USD 67.27 million. The Green Economic Optimisation Model (GEOM) verified that the oil palm EIT can meet both economic and environmental needs with 0.96 degree of satisfaction, optimal profit of USD 65.50 million and total CO2 emission of 464,210 kg-CO2-eq. The oil palm EIT can achieve maximum profits of USD 163.37 million via decentralised system in cases where there are multi-site oil palm EITs, as demonstrated by the Multi-site Optimisation Model (MSOM). Multi-period Optimisation Model (MPOM) demonstrated the most profitable industrial elements to be developed for year 2016 to 2025. It was found that the maximum profit can be achieved by oil palm EIT for the 10 year period was USD 903.07 million. The oil palm EIT can be promoted as a green economic development model powered by oil palm biomass

Superstructure-based synthesis and optimization of oil palm eco-industrial town: case study in Iskandar Malaysia

Malaysia is one of the world’s top edible oil producers, having more than 5.23 million hectares of palm oil plantations and more than 400 palm oil mills. The oil palm industry produces millions of tonnes of biomass waste during harvesting and mill processing. This paper presents an oil palm eco-industrial town (EIT) that integrates a palm oil mill with nine downstream oil palm-based industries, as well as a community. The downstream industries produce various types of products such as crude palm oil, bio-fertiliser, bio-gas, bio-diesel, bio-pellet, medium-density fibreboard (MDF), and are also involved in the paper industry, and livestock production. Through the concept of industry symbiosis, the oil palm EIT promotes energy and material sharing among the industries and the community to reduce energy consumption, virgin material consumption, and waste generation. Therefore, this concept could provide economic and environmental benefits to upstream industries (utilisation of biomass), downstream industries (conversion of biomass to valuable products), and the community (job creation). In this work, a multi-objective linear programming model is formulated to maximise economic performance, while minimising waste generation in the oil palm EIT. The applicability of the model is demonstrated using a case study in Iskandar Malaysia (IM). The optimised model suggests that the most efficient way to utilise abundant oil palm biomass is via the production of crude palm oil, MDF, bio-paper, paper, bio-gas, and bio-diesel. The model could assist decision makers to identify the sub-industries in the EIT that would promote sustainability in the oil palm industry

Eco village concept for green economic development: Iskandar Malaysia as a case study

Renewable Energy (RE) based on town concept in Iskandar Malaysia (IM) that can serve as a global model for a smart eco - village in tropical countries is proposed. In this research, renewable energy (RE) based distributed energy generation (DEG) system for Kulai eco-village (KEV) driven by integrating of biomass, biogas and solar energy. Thus, this paper discusses RE supply and demand side estimation ahead of implementation of RE DEG. The preliminary study has shown that energy supply from local RE included from oil palm biomass, landfill and solar was greater than energy demand for basic amenities at KEV such as lights, air-conditioner, and water heater by 221 times. The results of this study support the idea that it is possible to utilize local renewable energy as green energy resource and will become a first green eco town (GET) showcase from design, construction and operations

Finite element modelling for predicting the puncture responses in papayas

This study aims to develop a finite element (FE) model to determine the mechanical responses of Exotica papayas during puncture loads. The FE model of the puncture-test was developed using the ANSYS 19.1 software. The proposed framework combined the finite element method and statistical procedure to validate the simulation with the experimental results. Assuming the elastic-plastic behaviour of papaya, the mechanical properties were measured through tensile test and compression test for both skin and flesh. The geometrical models include a quarter solid of papaya that was subjected to a puncture test with a 2 mm diameter flat-end stainless-steel probe inserted into the fruit tissues at 0.5 mm/s, 1 mm/s, 1.5 mm/s, 2 mm/s, and 2.5 mm/s. The FE results showed good agreement with the experimental data, indicating that the proposed approach was reliable. The FE model was best predicted the bioyield force with the highest relative error of 14.46%. In conclusion, this study contributes to the usage of FE methods for predicting the puncture responses of any perishable fruit and agricultural products

Development of a self-propelled compost turning machine for composting oil palm empty fruit bunches

As a better way of utilizing agricultural waste and reducing fertilizer cost, the rich nutrient of empty fruit bunches (EFB) could be used in the production of compost and returned back to the soil as bio-organic fertilizer. However, the present turning machines that been employed in the production of EFB compost are unsuitable to employ due to the characteristic of EFB. The EFB are fibrous with high lignin and bulky in size giving higher tendency for the material to entangle and finally stalled the rotational rotor of turning machine. In addition, these turning machines are huge in physical size and engine capacity, high operation cost, and generally designed to work on animal and general agriculture wastes with have different properties from EFB. With current high fertilizer cost, abundant amply of EFB, utmost benefits of using organic fertilizers, and the unavailable of proper turning machine for EFB, it thus necessary for the oil palm plantation industry in Malaysia to be provided with a proper compost turning machine to produce compost from the EFB. A self-propelled turning machine for windrow composting of empty fruit bunches (EFB) had been designed, developed and tested. Conceptual design of the machine has been drawn in 2-D and 3-D drawing. Estimation of engine power requirement of the developed turning machine and computations of total hydraulic pressure to operate all actuators within the hydraulic system are also determined. A 60 kW diesel engine was used as the power source to generate hydraulic driven tires, hydraulic driven rotor and blade assembly and power steering system. The overall size of the machine was 1700 mm in length, 3600 mm in width and 3000 mm in height. Total weight of the developed turning machine was 3.83 tonne. The developed compost turning machine was designed to work with maximum windrow size of 2500 mm in width and 1500 mm in height. The rotor size was 2500 mm in length and 275 mm in diameter excluded the blade. The rotor contains a total of 30 blades that make-up of 25 straight blades at the center portion and 5 inclined tip blades placed at end portion of the rotor. All these blades were at 90º upright position and evenly placed in a spiral order at 70º direction towards to the centre of rotor so that the windrow will be rebuilt during the turning operation. The developed compost turning machine designed to overcome most of turners faced at the side which were flexibility in movement and transportation. The steering system of the machine has been design with capability to turn the wheels in 90°. This rare mechanism in the turner enables the machine to move sideway especially in the limited space. Data from field evaluation shows that the developed self-propelled compost turning machine was able to demonstrate functions as windrow turner under an actual composting production of EFB. The mean actual velocity of turning machine during the test was 7.78 cm/s with mean wheel slippage of 36. 87 %. The mean mas throughput capacity of the turning machine was 84.83 tonne/hr and total mass production of composting plot was 47.29 tonne/hr. The mean C/N ratio of EFB reduced from 66.30 to 29.34 or about 55.57% at the week-12 of composting period. The developed self-propelled compost turning machine showed high potential to be used in windrow composting for empty fruit bunch (EFB) as another step forward to empowering oil palm industry in Malaysia

Appropriate technology for windrow composting of oil palm empty fruit bunches

Composting of oil palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) under indoor windrow composting method with a newly developed compost turning machine was studied. The self-propelled compost turning machine was developed to mix and aerate 16 tons of pre-pressed and pre-shredded EFB in four longitudinal heaps having size of 2.50 meter width, 1.50 meter height and 12.0 meter length indoor with concrete flooring. Field performances of the compost turning machine and physical characteristics of the composted EFB were monitored throughout the 12 weeks of composting period. The average mass throughput capacity of the turning machine and total mass production of composting plot were found to be 84.83 ton/hr and 47.29 ton/hr, respectively. The average C/N ratios of the composted EFB in all the heaps had reduced from 66.30 to 29.34 (55.6% reduction) and the average heap volume had been reduced to 47.7% at the week 12th of composting period. Composting of EFB with this employed windrow composting system was able to convert large volume of bio-waste into valuable bio-compost fertilizer. Consequently, the proposed system helps in utilizing waste that produced from oil palm mill and reducing fertilizer cost that is a burden to the oil palm plantation

Performance of mid-size combine harvester of grain corn on the field efficiency and energy consumption at the northern Johor of Malaysia

A mid-size combine harvester with 2.76 m reaping width and 103.53 hp engine output has been employed in grain corn production, especially by small-scale grain corn farmers. This study attempted to determine field performances of a typical mid-size combine harvester by measuring its effective field capacity (EFC), field efficiency (FE), fuel consumption (FC) and field machine index (FMI). Different types of energy inputs such as fuel, machinery, human, included direct, indirect, renewable and non-renewable energy involved in grain corn harvesting were also measured. The field measurements were carried out in 3 ha of grain corn farm, under similar field conditions using a typical mid-size combine harvester. The average values of EFC, FE, FC and FMI for the mid-size combine harvester were found to be 0.23 ha/h, 34.97%, 37.25 lit/ha and 0.91, respectively. The average equivalent energy values of fuel, machinery and human energy were 1780.70 MJ/ha, 587.73 MJ/ha and 8.53 MJ/ha, respectively. The average values of the direct and indirect energy were 1789.23 MJ/ha and 587.73 MJ/ha, respectively. The average values of renewable and non-renewable energy were recorded at 8.53 MJ/ha and 2368.42 MJ/ha, respectively. The mid-size combine harvester investigated in this study exhibited good field performance characteristic using a reasonable amount of energy consumption as compared to harvesting operation for other grain crops. From the results, it can be concluded that good practice in harvesting operation could improve field performance, and minimise operational costs and energy consumption

MILP model for optimal operation of biomass facility treatment for efficient oil palm biomass management

Malaysia has experienced a significant increase in revenue from palm oil production over the years, resulting in a substantial quantity of biomass during the extraction of crude palm oil. To promote sustainability in the oil palm industry, it is essential to utilize the generated oil palm biomass effectively, aiming for a zero-waste approach. The biomass conversion not only generates additional revenue but also contributes to industry sustainability and environmental friendliness. However, factors such as biomass availability, conversion technologies, product demand, and time constraints must be carefully considered. The objective of this study is to analyze the potential conversion of oil palm biomass into bio-based products using a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model. The model was optimized using the General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS) software version 40.1, which considers critical factors, including biomass availability, conversion technologies, product demand, and time considerations. The study findings indicate that the generation of electricity and paper pulping offer a favorable return on investment and short payback periods, despite their initial high startup costs. In the case study of Kota Tinggi, electricity generation yielded the highest profit (RM 25,856,806.14), followed by paper pulping (RM 10,708,378.18), and fertilizer composting (RM 142,053.51). In contrast, 227,0538.4 kWh of electricity can be generated, amounting to 49.50 million Ringgit Malaysia, and 5,063.6 tons of bio-fertilizer, totaling 3.13 million Ringgit Malaysia. In conclusion, this model facilitates the selection of optimized profitable products, a key focus of the study, and helps determine the most profitable approach for utilizing oil palm biomass

Finite element modelling for fruit stress analysis - a review

Background: A deep understanding of the motion and the intensities of forces endured by the fruits overtime during the various handling processes is necessary if improvements are to be made in the handling systems or related tools. The finite element method (FEM) has been used to investigate the effect of mechanical loading on fruit before developing a prototype of the intended design. Simulation tests were performed to visualise the time-dependent deformation behaviour. Various studies have been reported on the use of FE for studying the effect of compression and drop forces on fruits. However, to the best of the knowledge of the authors, the application of finite-element analysis in fruit mechanics has not been summarized yet. Scope and approach: This review is concerned with establishing the introductory concept of FEM for evaluating fruit response under the static and dynamic loading. The FE equations were formulated based on the stress-strain constitutive equations. Key findings and conclusions: The review summarises the application of FEM for fruit stress-strain analysis. A brief description of the fundamentals and the existing models that have been developed to cope with problems of fruit mechanics are reported. This paper provides a review of the main FEM studies and a comparison between different types of stress analysis as well as outlining the potential use of FEM for future reference. This review can become an appropriate, timely and beneficial reference for any relevant follow-up research for the assessment of the quality of agricultural produces

Milp model for optimal operation of biomass facility treatment for efficient oil palm biomass management

Malaysia has experienced a significant increase in revenue from palm oil production over the years, resulting in a substantial quantity of biomass during the extraction of crude palm oil. To promote sustainability in the oil palm industry, it is essential to utilize the generated oil palm biomass effectively, aiming for a zero-waste approach. The biomass conversion not only generates additional revenue but also contributes to industry sustainability and environmental friendliness. However, factors such as biomass availability, conversion technologies, product demand, and time constraints must be carefully considered. The objective of this study is to analyze the potential conversion of oil palm biomass into bio-based products using a mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) model. The model was optimized using the General Algebraic Modelling System (GAMS) software version 40.1, which considers critical factors, including biomass availability, conversion technologies, product demand, and time considerations. The study findings indicate that the generation of electricity and paper pulping offer a favorable return on investment and short payback periods, despite their initial high startup costs. In the case study of Kota Tinggi, electricity generation yielded the highest profit (RM 25,856,806.14), followed by paper pulping (RM 10,708,378.18), and fertilizer composting (RM 142,053.51). In contrast, 227,0538.4 kWh of electricity can be generated, amounting to 49.50 million Ringgit Malaysia, and 5,063.6 tons of bio-fertilizer, totalling 3.13 million Ringgit Malaysia. In conclusion, this model facilitates the selection of optimized profitable products, a key focus of the study, and helps determine the most profitable approach for utilizing oil palm biomass