Affective and attentional states when running in a virtual reality environment

Engaging in physical exercise in a virtual reality (VR) environment has been reported to improve physical effort and affective states. However, these conclusions might be influenced by experimental design factors, such as comparing VR environments against a non-VR environment without actively controlling for the presence of visual input in non-VR conditions. The present study addressed this issue to examine affective and attentional states in a virtual running task. Participants (n = 40), completed a 21 min run on a treadmill at 70% of Vmax. One group of participants ran in a computer-generated VR environment that included other virtual runners while another group ran while viewing neutral images. Participants in both conditions showed a pattern of reduced positive affect and increased tension during the run with a return to high positive affect after the run. In the VR condition, higher levels of immersive tendencies and attention/absorption in the virtual environment were associated with more positive affect after the run. In addition, participants in the VR condition focused attention more on external task-relevant stimuli and less to internal states than participants in the neutral images condition. However, the neutral images condition produced less negative affect and more enjoyment after the run than the VR condition. The finding suggest that the effects of exercising in a VR environment will depend on individual difference factors (e.g., attention/absorption in the virtual world) but it may not always be better than distracting attention away from exercise-related cues

Is cake more appealing in the afternoon? Time of day is associated with control over automatic positive responses to unhealthy food

Despite researchers considering time of day an important variable in studies on implicit food evaluations and food intake, time of day effects on implicit food evaluations have yet to be tested. Positive implicit evaluations of unhealthy food stimuli measured with an implicit association test (IAT) predict behaviour toward those stimuli, and are assumed to reflect automatic reactions outside of conscious awareness and control. However, recent research has revealed controlled processing to have an influence on IAT performance. The current study tested time of day effects on implicit evaluations of unhealthy food measured with an IAT, and specifically on automatic and controlled processes underlying IAT performance. A sample of 304 undergraduate women aged 17–25 years completed a single-category IAT at varying times of the day. Results revealed that participation later in the day was associated with a more positive implicit evaluation of unhealthy food. This was mediated by a decrease in the ability to inhibit positive food reactions (i.e., controlled processing), rather than an increase in automatic positive reactions. The findings draw attention to the importance of considering time of day in studies measuring aspects of implicit cognition using tasks such as the IAT.No Full Tex

Too Depleted to Try? Testing the Process Model of Ego Depletion in the Context of Unhealthy Snack Consumption

Background: The process model proposes that the ego depletion effect is due to (a) an increase in motivation toward indulgence, and (b) a decrease in motivation to control behaviour following an initial act of self-control. In contrast, the reflective-impulsive model predicts that ego depletion results in behaviour that is more consistent with desires, and less consistent with motivations, rather than influencing the strength of desires and motivations. The current study sought to test these alternative accounts of the relationships between ego depletion, motivation, desire, and self-control. Methods: One hundred and fifty-six undergraduate women were randomised to complete a depleting e-crossing task or a non-depleting task, followed by a lab-based measure of snack intake, and self-report measures of motivation and desire strength. Results and Conclusions: In partial support of the process model, ego depletion was related to higher intake, but only indirectly via the influence of lowered motivation. Motivation was more strongly predictive of intake for those in the non-depletion condition, providing partial support for the reflective-impulsive model. Ego depletion did not affect desire, nor did depletion moderate the effect of desire on intake, indicating that desire may be an appropriate target for reducing unhealthy behaviour across situations where self-control resources vary

Reduce temptation or resist it? Experienced temptation mediates the relationship between implicit evaluations of unhealthy snack foods and subsequent intake

A more negative implicit evaluation of unhealthy food stimuli and a more positive implicit evaluation of a weight-management goal have been shown to predict lower consumption of unhealthy food. However, the associations between these evaluations, temptation to indulge and consumption of unhealthy food remain unclear. The current study investigated whether temptation would mediate the relationship between implicit food and goal evaluations and consumption (resembling an antecedent-focused route to self-control of eating), or whether those evaluations would moderate the relationship between temptation and consumption (resembling a response-focused route). A sample of 156 women (17–25 years), who tried to manage their weight through healthy eating, completed two implicit association tasks assessing implicit food and goal evaluations, respectively. Intake of four energy-dense snack foods was measured in a task disguised as a taste test, and participants reported the strength of experienced temptation to indulge in the snacks offered. Negative implicit food evaluation was associated with lower snack intake, and temptation mediated this relationship. Implicit goal evaluation was unrelated to both temptation strength and snack consumption. The findings contribute to an understanding of how negative implicit unhealthy food evaluation relates to lower consumption, namely through the mediation of temptation to indulge in those foods

Decline in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder traits over the life-course in the general population:Trajectories across five population birth cohorts spanning ages 3 to 45 years

Background Trajectories of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) traits spanning early childhood to mid-life have not been described in general populations across different geographical contexts. Population trajectories are crucial to better understanding typical developmental patterns. Methods We combined repeated assessments of ADHD traits from five population-based cohorts, spanning ages 3 to 45 years. We used two measures: (i) the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) hyperactive-inattentive subscale (175 831 observations, 29 519 individuals); and (ii) scores from DSM-referenced scales (118 144 observations, 28 685 individuals). Multilevel linear spline models allowed for non-linear change over time and differences between cohorts and raters (parent/teacher/self). Results Patterns of age-related change differed by measure, cohort and country: overall, SDQ scores decreased with age, most rapidly declining before age 8 years (-0.157, 95% CI: -0.170, -0.144 per year). The pattern was generally consistent using DSM scores, although with greater between-cohort variation. DSM scores decreased most rapidly between ages 14 and 17 years (-1.32%, 95% CI: -1.471, -1.170 per year). Average scores were consistently lower for females than males (SDQ: -0.818, 95% CI: -0.856, -0.780; DSM: -4.934%, 95% CI: -5.378, -4.489). This sex difference decreased over age for both measures, due to an overall steeper decrease for males. Conclusions ADHD trait scores declined from childhood to mid-life, with marked variation between cohorts. Our results highlight the importance of taking a developmental perspective when considering typical population traits. When interpreting changes in clinical cohorts, it is important to consider the pattern of expected change within the general population, which is influenced by cultural context and measurement

Emotions in sport: Perceived effects on attention, concentration, and performance

This study explored attentional patterns associated with positive and negative emotions during sport competition, and athletes' perceptions of the consequences of these attentional changes for concentration and performance. Sixty-nine athletes completed the Sport Emotion Questionnaire following a national softball competition. They also retrospectively reported their perceptions of how emotions influenced their attention, concentration, and sport performance. Excitement and happiness were more closely associated with concentration than anxiety, dejection, and anger. Although excitement demanded more attention than the negative emotions, the positive emotions were perceived as more likely to lead to a performance-relevant focus and automatic physical movements, both of which were beneficial for concentration and performance. Emotional intensity increased these effects. © The Australian Psychological Society Ltd

Accessibility and emotionality of online assessment feedback: Using emoticons to enhance student perceptions of marker competence and warmth

Assessment feedback is one of the most powerful learning tools, and in higher education this feedback is increasingly being provided online. The current study investigated the inclusion of emoticons as a method through which to enhance student perceptions of the accessibility and emotionality of written online assessment feedback. Undergraduate students (N= 241) were presented with an online faux essay along with associated written feedback typical of the comments students would receive in the higher education context. The feedback was identical except for the inclusion of emoticons. Using a between-groups design, emoticons were manipulated in two ways: frequency (none, 1, 3, or 6) and valence (happy, sad, or confused). The use of happy emoticons produced significantly higher perceptions of marker warmth when compared to no emoticons, or when negatively valenced emoticons were included. Furthermore, marker competence was significantly higher when 3 happy face emoticons were presented in the feedback than when 3 sad or confused faces were included. Student perceptions of feedback quality and marker professionalism were not affected by emoticon use. Thus, the results suggest that instructors can use positively valenced emoticons to inject some fun, warmth, and emotionality in written online assessment feedback without sacrificing feedback quality or professional integrity

Assignments 2.0: The role of social presence and computer attitudes in student preferences for online versus offline marking

This study provided the first empirical and direct comparison of preferences for online versus offline assignment marking in higher education. University students (N = 140) reported their attitudes towards assignment marking and feedback both online and offline, perceptions of social presence in each modality, and attitudes towards computers. The students also ranked their preferences for receiving feedback in terms of three binary characteristics: modality (online or offline), valence (positive or negative), and scope of feedback (general or specific). Although attitudes towards online and offline marking did not significantly differ, positive attitudes towards one modality were strongly correlated with negative attitudes towards the other modality. Greater perceptions of social presence within a modality were associated with more positive attitudes towards that modality. Binary characteristics were roughly equally weighted. Findings suggest that the online feedback modality will most effectively maximise student engagement if online assignment marking and feedback tools facilitate perceptions of social presence.No Full Tex