The rin, nor and Cnr spontaneous mutations inhibit tomato fruit ripening in additive and epistatic manners

Tomato fruit ripening is regulated by transcription factors (TFs), their downstream effector genes, and the ethylene biosynthesis and signalling pathway. Spontaneous non-ripening mutants ripening inhibitor (rin), non-ripening (nor) and Colorless non-ripening (Cnr) correspond with mutations in or near the TF-encoding genes MADS-RIN, NAC-NOR and SPL-CNR, respectively. Here, we produced heterozygous single and double mutants of rin, nor and Cnr and evaluated their functions and genetic interactions in the same genetic background. We showed how these mutations interact at the level of phenotype, individual effector gene expression, and sensory and quality aspects, in a dose-dependent manner. Rin and nor have broadly similar quantitative effects on all aspects, demonstrating their additivity in fruit ripening regulation. We also found that the Cnr allele is epistatic to rin and nor and that its pleiotropic effects on fruit size and volatile production, in contrast to the well-known dominant effect on ripening, are incompletely dominant, or recessive.</p

Towards a Design Model for local Smart Grid Systems: Connecting Ostrom’s IAD-Framework to Institutional Legal Theory

This paper proposes an analytical framework towards a design-model connecting Ostrom’s IAD-Framework with Institutional Legal Theory (ILT), applicable to legal-settings for local Smart-Grid systems. This connection contributes to achieving legal innovations necessary to the (fit of) public-private arrangements of such local systems. A two-step analytical approach is used. The first step is to frame the institutional connection between IAD and ILT. Ostrom’s ‘rules-in-use’ are connected to legal ‘rules-in-form’. This institutional rule-perspective is then aligned with Action Situations at Ostrom’s three analytical levels, considering that different legal institutions are relevant to the content of Action Situation rules. In the second step, the institutional rule-perspective is placed in the specific legal setting of a example in a Dutch municipality. We demonstrate how the abstract IAD/ILT-frame provides a lens to identify legal aspects (e.g. gaps and conflicts) of establishing and maintaining particular local Smart-Grid systems – to provide insight for future design challenges

Smart design rules for smart grids: analysing local smart grid development through an empirico-legal institutional lens

Background: This article entails an innovative approach to smart grid technology implementation, as it connects governance research with legal analysis. We apply the empirico-legal ‘ILTIAD framework’, which combines Elinor Ostrom’s Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework with institutional legal theory (ILT), to an empirical case study of a local smart grid project. Methods: Empirical data were collected in an exploratory, descriptive example study of a single case, focusing on the Action Situation and interactions towards establishing a local Smart Grid. The case was chosen because of its complexity, following the ‘logic of intensity sampling’. Data triangulation took place combining participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and document analysis. Results: Through an exploratory case study, we showed how the ILTIAD framework can help reduce complexity in local decision-making processes on smart grid implementation, as it allows for analytical description and prescriptive design of local smart grid systems. In the analysis we addressed ownership arrangements and contracts and identified barriers and opportunities for realizing a local smart grid system. The design part includes a scenario which revealed the prescribed patterns of behaviour (liberties and abilities) and the consequential aspects that apply to each situation. Conclusions: Analysing and designing normative alignment ex ante to the planning and implementation of a smart grid system provides clarity to stakeholders about their current opportunities. For this reason, the ILTIAD framework can be used as a design guideline for establishing new and integrated smart grid projects

An empirico-legal analytical & design model for local smart energy systems: Applying the ‘ILTIAD’ model, combining the IAD-Framework with Institutional Legal Theory

This article presents a new framework for the analysis and design of legal-governance settings for collective action challenges, particularly of local (smart) microgrids, with a focus on related local planning. The framework connects Ostrom’s IAD-Framework with Institutional Legal Theory (ILT), to foster proper understanding of both empirical and legal-prescriptive elements. This is relevant to state of affairs analyses, but also to design-oriented analysis towards institutional change of legal settings for local smart microgrid systems. The proposed framework connection (named ‘ILTIAD’) contributes to a proper empirico-legal understanding of existing and possible improvements in public-private arrangements relevant to bring about innovations of the said local microgrids. A three-step conceptual approach is presented. The first step is about relating local smart microgrids to the concept of a collective action and explaining the relevance of adding an ILT perspective to the IAD-framework. The second step is to frame the connection between IAD and ILT (as ILTIAD) with a view on relevant action situations. To this end, Ostrom’s ‘rules-in-use’ are connected to legal ‘rules-in-form’. This institutional rule-perspective is then aligned with action situations at Ostrom’s four analytical levels, considering that different legal institutions are relevant to the content of action situation rules. In the third step, the institutional rule-perspective is placed in the specific legal setting of an example for a Dutch Crown Decree on experiments for decentralized renewable energy projects. We demonstrate how the abstract ILTIAD-framework provides a lens to identify legal aspects as constraints and opportunities within action situations. Furthermore, we show from a design perspective how the framework can help identify gaps and conflicts when establishing and maintaining particular local smart microgrids. In doing so, we also connect to dynamic aspects of underlying transition justice concerns, following energy expansion versus energy democratisation frames. In conclusion the article reflects inter alia on some analytical and methodological aspects of ILTIAD as compared to the IAD-framework

The rin, nor and Cnr spontaneous mutations inhibit tomato fruit ripening in additive and epistatic manners

Tomato fruit ripening is regulated by transcription factors (TFs), their downstream effector genes, and the ethylene biosynthesis and signalling pathway. Spontaneous non-ripening mutants ripening inhibitor (rin), non-ripening (nor) and Colorless non-ripening (Cnr) correspond with mutations in or near the TF-encoding genes MADS-RIN, NAC-NOR and SPL-CNR, respectively. Here, we produced heterozygous single and double mutants of rin, nor and Cnr and evaluated their functions and genetic interactions in the same genetic background. We showed how these mutations interact at the level of phenotype, individual effector gene expression, and sensory and quality aspects, in a dose-dependent manner. Rin and nor have broadly similar quantitative effects on all aspects, demonstrating their additivity in fruit ripening regulation. We also found that the Cnr allele is epistatic to rin and nor and that its pleiotropic effects on fruit size and volatile production, in contrast to the well-known dominant effect on ripening, are incompletely dominant, or recessive

Re-evaluation of transcription factor function in tomato fruit development and ripening with CRISPR/Cas9-mutagenesis

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a model for climacteric fleshy fruit ripening studies. Tomato ripening is regulated by multiple transcription factors together with the plant hormone ethylene and their downstream effector genes. Transcription Factors APETALA2a (AP2a), NON-RIPENING (NOR) and FRUITFULL (FUL1/TDR4 and FUL2/MBP7) were reported as master regulators controlling tomato fruit ripening. Their proposed functions were derived from studies of the phenotype of spontaneous mutants or RNAi knock-down lines rather than, as it appears now, actual null mutants. To study TF function in tomato fruit ripening in more detail, we used CRISPR/Cas9-mediated mutagenesis to knock out the encoding genes, and phenotypes of these mutants are reported for the first time. While the earlier ripening, orange-ripe phenotype of ap2a mutants was confirmed, the nor null mutant exhibited a much milder phenotype than the spontaneous nor mutant. Additional analyses revealed that the severe phenotype in the spontaneous mutant is caused by a dominant-negative allele. Our approach also provides new insight into the independent and overlapping functions of FUL1 and FUL2. Single and combined null alleles of FUL1 and FUL2 illustrate that these two genes have partially redundant functions in fruit ripening, but also unveil an additional role for FUL2 in early fruit development.</p