Prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in children

As more children and adolescents participate in competitive organized sports, there has been an increase in the reported incidence of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in these age groups. ACL injuries in skeletally immature athletes present a challenge, as reconstruction must preserve the physis of the distal femur and of the proximal tibia to avoid growth disturbances. Historically, a skeletally immature athlete with an ACL injury was treated with a brace and activity modification until skeletal maturity, with ACL reconstruction being performed at that time in the “non-copers” who experienced instability. More recently, evidence has shown that delayed reconstruction may lead to increased damage to the meniscus and articular cartilage. As a result, early reconstruction is favored to protect the meniscus and allow continued physical activity. While adolescents at or those near skeletal maturity may be treated with standard reconstruction techniques, they may result in growth disturbances in younger athletes with significant growth remaining. In response to the growing need for ACL reconstruction techniques in skeletally immature individuals, physeal-sparing and physeal-respecting reconstruction techniques have been developed. In addition to the advancements in surgical technique, ACL injury prevention has also gained attention. This growing interest in ACL prevention is in part related to the high risk of ACL re-tear, either of the ACL graft or of the contralateral ACL, in children and adolescents. Recent reports indicate that well-designed neuromuscular training programs may reduce the risk of primary and subsequent ACL injuries

The Effect of Perioperative Ketorolac on the Clinical Failure Rate of Meniscal Repair

Background: There has been recent interest in the effect of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications on musculoskeletal healing. No studies have yet addressed the effect of these medications on meniscal healing. Hypothesis The administration of ketorolac in the perioperative period will result in higher rates of meniscal repair clinical failure. Study design Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: A total of 110 consecutive patients underwent meniscal repair at our institution between August 1998 and July 2001. Three patients were lost to follow-up, and the remaining 107 (mean age, 15.9 ± 4.4 years) had a minimum 5-year follow-up (mean follow-up, 5.5 years). Thirty-two patients (30%) received ketorolac perioperatively. The primary outcome measure was reoperation for continued symptoms of meniscal pathology. Asymptomatic patients were evaluated by the International Knee Documentation Committee (IKDC) Subjective Knee Form, Short Form–36 (SF-36) Health Survey, and Knee Outcome Osteoarthritis Score (KOOS). Results: Kaplan-Meier survivorship revealed no difference in reoperation rates with and without the administration of perioperative ketorolac (P = .95). There was an overall failure rate of 35% (37/107 patients), with a 34% failure rate in patients receiving ketorolac (11/32 patients). Multivariable Cox regression confirmed that age, duration of symptoms, meniscal tear type, fixation technique, concurrent anterior cruciate ligament repair, and ketorolac usage did not have an impact on the rate of failure (P > .05 for all; ketorolac use, P > .50). Female sex (P = .04) and medial location (P = .01) were predictive of an increased risk for reoperation. Conclusion: Failure of meniscal repair was not altered with the administration of perioperative ketorolac. Further work studying the effects of longer term anti-inflammatory use after meniscal repair is necessary before stating that this class of medications has no effect on meniscal healing. Clinical Relevance Results of this study suggest that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory ketorolac can be administered perioperatively during a meniscal repair procedure to harness its benefits of decreased narcotic requirement, decreased pain, and shorter length of hospital stay without negatively influencing the long-term outcome of the surgery

Karate injuries in children and adolescents

Abstract Objecti6es: To identify risk factors for injury and to establish safety guidelines for children in Uechi -Ryu karate. Design: A 1-year retrospective survey of injuries. Setting: A private karate school (Uechi -Ryu style) in Plymouth, MA. Patients: A total of 68 athletes (age 6-16 years; mean age 10 years) who participated in karate during the 1995 -1996 season. Inter6entions: None. Main outcome measures: The presence or absence of injury, with grading of injuries as major, moderate or minor. The types of injuries and body region involved were also analyzed. Results: Twenty eight percent of athletes sustained at least one injury. All injuries were minor, with no time off from training required. The injuries consisted primarily of bruises (11 of 19). Other injuries included mild sprains or strains (5 of 19) and having their 'wind knocked out' (3 of 19). Most injuries were localized to the extremities. Logistic regression analysis identified risk factors for injury. Risk of injury increased with number of years of training (odds ratio 2.95; 95% confidence interval 1.81-4.82; P B0.0001), number of hours per week (odds ratio 2.12; CI 1.15-4.21; P =0.016) and rank, specifically brown belt versus lower belts (odds ratio 6.56; CI 2.02 -21.26; P =0.006). Conclusions: Karate is a relatively safe sport for children and adolescents when properly taught. Risk of injury increases with experience; therefore, greater supervision is required of higher ranks. Injury increases with weekly training; however, 3 h a week or less appears to be associated with a low risk of significant injury in this age group

Comparison of Lower Extremity Recovery After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction With Transphyseal Hamstring Versus Extraphyseal Iliotibial Band Techniques in Skeletally Immature Athletes

Background: The influence of graft type on recovery after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) has not been adequately studied in pediatric patients. Purpose: To describe lower extremity functional recovery parameters at the 6-month mark after ACLR across 3 distinct groups of skeletally immature patients: pediatric male patients with transphyseal hamstring grafts (PM-HS), pediatric female patients with transphyseal hamstring grafts (PF-HS), and pediatric male patients with extraphyseal iliotibial band grafts (PM-ITB). Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Thigh circumference, knee range of motion, lower extremity strength, dynamic balance, and hop test performance were assessed in all patients 6 months postoperatively. All participants were ≤15 years of age with open physes. The limb symmetry index was used to compare deficits between the operated and uninvolved limbs for all 3 groups (PM-HS, PF-HS, and PM-ITB). Analysis of variance with post hoc correction was employed. Results: A total of 93 pediatric patients who underwent ACLR (PM-HS: n = 21 [mean age, 13.6 ± 1.0 years]; PF-HS: n = 33 [mean age, 13.4 ± 0.7 years]; PM-ITB: n = 39 [mean age, 12.5 ± 1.3 years]) were examined. There was no statistically significant difference in thigh circumference, range of motion, dynamic balance, or hop test performance between the groups. Of the various additional comparisons analyzed, there were statistical differences in hamstring strength deficits among the 3 groups (P = .004). The PM-HS group showed a greater hamstring strength deficit (–32.2% relative to healthy limb) than the PM-ITB group (–5.4% relative to healthy limb) (P = .012). The hamstring strength deficit of the PF-HS group (–18.7% relative to healthy limb) was less than that of the PM-HS group and greater than that of the PM-ITB group but not statistically significant in either case. Conclusion: Significant hamstring strength deficits were detected in the PM-HS group compared with the PM-ITB group at 6 months following ACLR. Such findings may influence decisions regarding graft selection, timing of return to sports, and postoperative rehabilitation regimens

OCD Lesions Of The Patella And Trochlea In Children

Objectives: The purpose of this report is to evaluate the functional outcomes of surgical management of OCD lesions of the patella and trochlea in children. Secondary aims include elucidating predictors for higher functional outcomes, determining complication rates, surgical satisfaction and ability to return to sports. Methods: Patients age ≤ 18 years who were surgically treated for OCD of the patellar or trochlea were identified. Charts were queried to record patient/lesion data, surgical procedure, results and complications. Pre- and postoperative imaging was reviewed. Patients were asked to complete a follow-up athletic questionnaire and a Pediatric International Knee Documentation Committee (Pedi-IKDC) score. Statistical analysis was conducted to look for predictors for reoperation, residual pain, ability to return to sports and lower Pedi-IKDC scores. Results: Twenty-six children (9 female, 17 male, 3 bilateral) were identified. Mean age was 14.7 (range: 9-18), 21/29 (72%) had open physes, and median follow-up was 3.8 years (range: 1-9 years). The most common location was the trochlea (17/29, 59%). Twenty-two lesions (76%) underwent transarticular drilling (n=14) or drilling with fixation (8), while 7 underwent excision and marrow stimulation. Four patients (14%) required unplanned re-operation. Internal fixation was predictive of reoperation (OR= 8.7, 95% CI= 2.8-26.9, P=0.04). At final follow up, 14 knees (48%) were pain-free, 14 (48%) had mild residual pain. Female gender was predictive of residual pain (OR= 9, 95% CI= 2-56, P=0.02). Twenty-two patients (85%) returned to sports. Longer duration of preoperative pain negatively impacted return to sports (OR= 0.32, 95% CI= 0.05-0.97, P=0.04). On postoperative imaging, the lesion appeared completely healed in 5 cases (42%) and partially healed in 12 cases (58%). All 15 survey respondents were satisfied with surgery. The mean Pedi-IKDC score was 82.4 ± 17.8 (range: 40.2 -100). Conclusion: Surgical treatment of patellofemoral OCD in children produces a high rate of satisfaction and return to sports. Female gender, prolonged duration of symptoms and internal fixation may be associated with worse outcomes