Perspectives on theory and application of implicit and explicit motor learning in neurological rehabilitation

Many people who have suffered a stroke have to re-learn certain movements, like walking. This can take many different forms. Physiotherapists and other healthcare professionals can offer detailed verbal instructions (explicit learning) or have patients experience a movement subconsciously through the use of metaphors or challenging environments (implicit learning). In this project, the knowledge and experience of international experts on explicit and implicit learning methods for movement were combined to develop a conceptual model for therapists. Applied studies have revealed that implicit learning is the most manageable and the most successful at helping patients learn how to walk

Perspectives on theory and application of implicit and explicit motor learning in neurological rehabilitation

Movement is an essential part of our lives. Throughout our lifetime, we acquire many different motor skills that are necessary to take care of ourselves (e.g., eating, dressing), to work (e.g., typing, using tools, care for others) and to pursue our hobbies (e.g., running, dancing, painting). However, as a consequence of aging, trauma or chronic disease, motor skills may deteriorate or become “lost”. Learning, relearning, and improving motor skills may then be essential to maintain or regain independence. There are many different ways in which the process of learning a motor skill can be shaped in practice. The conceptual basis for this thesis was the broad distinction between implicit and explicit forms of motor learning. Physiotherapists and occupational therapists are specialized to provide therapy that is tailored to facilitate the process of motor learning of patients with a wide range of pathologies. In addition to motor impairments, patients suffering from neurological disorders often also experience problems with cognition and communication. These problems may hinder the process of learning at a didactic level, and make motor learning especially challenging for those with neurological disorders. This thesis focused on the theory and application of motor learning during rehabilitation of patients with neurological disorders. The overall aim of this thesis was to provide therapists in neurological rehabilitation with knowledge and tools to support the justified and tailored use of motor learning in daily clinical practice. The thesis is divided into two parts. The aim of the first part (Chapters 2‐5) was to develop a theoretical basis to apply motor learning in clinical practice, using the implicit‐explicit distinction as a conceptual basis. Results of this first part were used to develop a framework for the application of motor learning within neurological rehabilitation (Chapter 6). Afterwards, in the second part, strategies identified in first part were tested for feasibility and potential effects in people with stroke (Chapters 7 and 8). Chapters 5-8 are non-final versions of an article published in final form in: Chapter 5: Kleynen M, Moser A, Haarsma FA, Beurskens AJ, Braun SM. Physiotherapists use a great variety of motor learning options in neurological rehabilitation, from which they choose through an iterative process: a retrospective think-aloud study. Disabil Rehabil. 2017 Aug;39(17):1729-1737. doi: 10.1080/09638288.2016.1207111. Chapter 6: Kleynen M, Beurskens A, Olijve H, Kamphuis J, Braun S. Application of motor learning in neurorehabilitation: a framework for health-care professionals. Physiother Theory Pract. 2018 Jun 19:1-20. doi: 10.1080/09593985.2018.1483987 Chapter 7: Kleynen M, Wilson MR, Jie LJ, te Lintel Hekkert F, Goodwin VA, Braun SM. Exploring the utility of analogies in motor learning after stroke: a feasibility study. Int J Rehabil Res. 2014 Sep;37(3):277-80. doi: 10.1097/MRR.0000000000000058. Chapter 8: Kleynen M, Jie LJ, Theunissen K, Rasquin SM, Masters RS, Meijer K, Beurskens AJ, Braun SM. The immediate influence of implicit motor learning strategies on spatiotemporal gait parameters in stroke patients: a randomized within-subjects design. Clin Rehabil. 2019 Apr;33(4):619-630. doi: 10.1177/0269215518816359

Tips en voorbeelden voor mantelzorgers en mensen na beroerte

Na een beroerte moeten patiënten veel bewegingen opnieuw aanleren. Samen met de fysiotherapeut oefent de patiënt deze bewegingen tijdens de therapie. Voor een snelle en duurzame revalidatie is het van belang dat de patiënt die bewegingen ook thuis oefent. In het project ‘De kracht van het onbewuste leren 2.0’ van het lectoraat Voeding, Leefstijl en Bewegen van Zuyd Hogeschool is veel kennis opgedaan over de beste manier van leren. Patiënten en mantelzorgers hebben samen met studenten (fysiotherapie, logopedie en communication & multimediadesign), fysiotherapeuten, ergotherapeuten en onderzoekers kennis en ervaringen uit dit project vertaald naar laagdrempelig instructie- en voorbeeldmateriaal. Het resultaat is de flyer ‘Samen oefenen: tips en voorbeelden voor mantelzorgers en mensen na een beroerte’ met links naar vier korte, informatieve video’s over het leren van bewegingen

Task-oriented arm training for stroke patients based on remote handling technology concepts:Results of a pilot study

Improving arm-hand skill performance is a major goal in the rehabilitation of patients who suffered a stroke. Technology-assisted training may enrich training content and variation. We developed a new task-oriented arm training approach (ReHab-TOAT) based on 'remote handling concept' technology from nuclear industry (DexterTM, Veolia Nuclear Solutions, Abingdon, UK) to provide enriched proprioceptive feedback. Aim was to investigate the potential order of magnitude the ReHab-TOAT concept may have additional to therapy-as-usual on improving arm-hand function (AHF) and arm-hand skill performance (AHSP) in both subacute and chronic stroke patients. This study included five subacute and five chronic hemiparetic stroke patients suffering from moderate to severe arm-hand problems. Over a six-weeks period, participants received 18 sessions of ReHab-TOAT additional to therapy-as-usual. Outcome measures were taken pre- and post-intervention. Clinical relevant overall improvements regarding AHF (mean improvement on the FuglMeyer Assessment: 15.3 points (+-9.6 SD, p=0.007)) and AHSP (mean improvement on the Action Research Arm Test: 6.8 points (+- 9.0 SD, p=0.036)), which also exceeded the minimal detectable change (MDC), were found. When differentiating between subacute and chronic stroke patients, analyses showed clinically relevant improvements in AHF in the chronic and subacute stroke groups, while clinical relevant improvements in AHSP were only found in the subacute group. This pilot study provided data for a power analysis for an ensuing randomized clinical trial

Rehabilitation with mental practice has similar effects on mobility as rehabilitation with relaxation in people with Parkinson's disease: a multicentre randomised trial

QuestionsIs mental practice embedded in standard physiotherapy compared with relaxation embedded in standard physiotherapy more effective at improving mobility tasks in people with Parkinson's disease in the community? Does disease severity influence the treatment effect?DesignA multicentre randomised controlled trial.ParticipantsPeople with Parkinson's disease.InterventionDuring a six-week intervention period, both groups received physiotherapy as usual with the addition of either mental practice (experimental group) or relaxation (control group). Imagery skills were taught using a four-step protocol. Movement imagery (in thought) and the performance of motor activities were combined.Outcome measuresOutcomes were assessed at six weeks and three months with: the patient- and therapist-perceived effect on walking performance (visual analogue scale), the Timed Up and Go test, and the 10 m Walk test. Primary analysis was performed using intention-totreat and was repeated as a per-protocol analysis, and as a sub-group analysis of participants with Hoehn and Yahr stage of less than 3. Generalised estimating equations were used to analyse effects.Results47 participants were assigned to the control (n = 22) and experimental (n = 25) groups. No effect in favour of the mental practice intervention on any outcome measure could be detected at any of the measurement points. In the sub-group analysis of participants with milder disease, the experimental group improved more than the control group but this was not statistically significant.ConclusionIn this study, we did not find differences between embedded mental practice and relaxation with current standard of care.Trial registrationNederlands Trial Register: NTR1735

The Effects of Implicit and Explicit Motor Learning in Gait Rehabilitation of People After Stroke: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial

Background: A significant part of neurological rehabilitation focuses on facilitating the learning of motor skills. Training can adopt either (more) explicit or (more) implicit forms of motor learning. Gait is one of the most practiced motor skills within rehabilitation in people after stroke because it is an important criterion for discharge and requirement for functioning at home. Objective: The aim of this study was to describe the design of a randomized controlled study assessing the effects of implicit motor learning compared with the explicit motor learning in gait rehabilitation of people suffering from stroke. Methods: The study adopts a randomized, controlled, single-blinded study design. People after stroke will be eligible for participation when they are in the chronic stage of recovery (>6 months after stroke), would like to improve walking performance, have a slow walking speed (<1 m/s), can communicate in Dutch, and complete a 3-stage command. People will be excluded if they cannot walk a minimum of 10 m or have other additional impairments that (severely) influence gait. Participants will receive 9 gait-training sessions over a 3-week period and will be randomly allocated to an implicit or explicit group. Therapists are aware of the intervention they provide, and the assessors are blind to the intervention participants receive. Outcome will be assessed at baseline (T0), directly after the intervention (T1), and after 1 month (T2). The primary outcome parameter is walking velocity. Walking performance will be assessed with the 10-meter walking test, Dynamic Gait Index, and while performing a secondary task (dual task). Self-reported measures are the Movement Specific Reinvestment Scale, verbal protocol, Stroke and Aphasia Quality of Life Scale, and the Global Perceived Effect scale. A process evaluation will take place to identify how the therapy was perceived and identify factors that may have influenced the effectiveness of the intervention. Repeated measures analyses will be conducted to determine significant and clinical relevant differences between groups and over time. Results: Data collection is currently ongoing and results are expected in 2019. Conclusions: The relevance of the study as well as the advantages and disadvantages of several aspects of the chosen design are discussed, for example, the personalized approach and choice of measurement

Application of motor learning in neurorehabilitation: a framework for health-care professionals

Motor learning is particularly challenging in neurological rehabilitation: patients who suffer from neurological diseases experience both physical limitations and difficulties of cognition and communication that affect and/or complicate the motor learning process. Therapists (e.g.,, physiotherapists and occupational therapists) who work in neurorehabilitation are therefore continuously searching for the best way to facilitate patients during these intensive learning processes. To support therapists in the application of motor learning, a framework was developed, integrating knowledge from the literature and the opinions and experiences of international experts. This article presents the framework, illustrated by cases from daily practice. The framework may assist therapists working in neurorehabilitation in making choices, implementing motor learning in routine practice, and supporting communication of knowledge and experiences about motor learning with colleagues and students. The article discusses the framework and offers suggestions and conditions given for its use in daily practice