Occupancy modeling reveals territory-level effects of nest boxes on the presence, colonization, and persistence of a declining raptor in a fruit-growing region

<div><p>Nest boxes for predators in agricultural regions are an easily implemented tool to improve local habitat quality with potential benefits for both conservation and agriculture. The potential for nest boxes to increase raptor populations in agricultural regions is of particular interest given their positions as top predators. This study examined the effects of cherry orchard nest boxes on the local breeding population of a declining species, the American Kestrel (<i>Falco sparverius</i>), in a fruit-growing region of Michigan. During the 2013–2016 study, we added a total of 23 new nest boxes in addition to 24 intact boxes installed previously; kestrels used up to 100% of our new boxes each season. We conducted temporally-replicated surveys along four roadside transects divided into 1.6 km × 500 m sites. We developed a multi-season occupancy model under a Bayesian framework and found that nest boxes had strong positive effects on first-year site occupancy, site colonization, and site persistence probabilities. The estimated number of occupied sites increased between 2013 and 2016, which correlated with the increase in number of sites with boxes. Kestrel detections decreased with survey date but were not affected by time of day or activity at the boxes themselves. These results indicate that nest boxes determined the presence of kestrels at our study sites and support the conclusion that the local kestrel population is likely limited by nest site availability. Furthermore, our results are highly relevant to the farmers on whose properties the boxes were installed, for we can conclude that installing a nest box in an orchard resulted in a high probability of kestrels occupying that orchard or the areas adjacent to it.</p></div

Multi-season occupancy modeling results for kestrel presence.

<p>Multi-season occupancy modeling results for kestrel presence.</p

Predictions of the relationship between Julian date and kestrel detection probability <i>p</i>.

<p>Black line shows posterior mean, and gray lines show the relationship based on a random posterior sample of size 200 to visualize estimation uncertainty [<a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0185701#pone.0185701.ref034" target="_blank">34</a>].</p