Characterisation and management of frustration in the dog (Canis familiaris)

Frustration is a negative emotional state, arising when an individual is thwarted from achieving a goal. In the human literature, frustration has been linked with anger and aggression and a variety of psychometric scales have been developed to scale this affective tendency at the trait level. The potential role of frustration within canine behaviour problems has been highlighted within the veterinary behavioural medicine literature, however the assessment of such frustration has historically been based on individual personal evaluation. At the start of this thesis, existing published research was limited to frustration-related behaviours reported in dogs in specific experimental settings. The aim of this thesis was to develop a reliable and valid psychometric tool – the Canine Frustration Questionnaire (CFQ) - for the quantification of trait level frustration tendencies in dogs and explore the application of this tool in a clinical setting. A series of three surveys was undertaken to gather expert opinion on canine frustration from clinicians, ethologists and owners. The results of these informed the generation of items capturing the trait of frustration which were formulated into a questionnaire for dog owners. The questionnaire was disseminated electronically and was completed by 2346 owners. Reliability was established within the scale, with a high level of internal consistency. Reliability was also established over repeated completion of the scale: intra-rater reliability over short (6 weeks) and long (1 year) time points; inter-rater reliability assessed using two owners of the same dog. Following the removal of non-reliable items, principal component analysis was used to generate a 21 item, five component solution which could be interpreted biologically and demonstrated concurrent validity with expected associations between the CFQ and a range of owner reported measures. Principal components (PC) were labelled: PC1 ‘General frustration’; PC2 ‘Barrier frustration/perseverance’; PC3 ‘Unmet expectations’; PC4 ‘Autonomous control’; and PC5 ‘Frustration coping’. In order to further assess the validity of the CFQ beyond owner reported measures, a battery of behaviour tests was designed to elicit frustration, mapping on to the CFQ PCs and items. A group of 44 dogs underwent the test battery and a range of behavioural and physiological measures were collected, selected for their expected relationship with frustration. Vocalising measures from the full test battery were associated with CFQ scores providing evidence of convergent validity. Change in salivary cortisol levels pre- to post�test and absolute post-test levels were associated with CFQ PC5 providing evidence of convergent validity with this physiological measure of arousal. Heart rate variability and urinary neurotransmitters/metabolites were also tested revealing a range of associations warranting further investigation in future studies. Finally, the CFQ was piloted in a clinical setting where clinical predictions were supported, establishing the CFQ as an aid to the diagnostic process and in monitoring the response to treatment of frustration-related problems. This important achievement completes the original aims of the thesis and allows the CFQ to be used in a clinical setting and applied in future clinical research

Characterizing cardiac function in ICU survivors of sepsis

Background: Sepsis is one of the most common reasons for ICU admission and a leading cause of mortality worldwide. More than one-half of survivors experience significant physical, psychological, or cognitive impairments, often termed post-intensive care syndrome (PICS). Sepsis is recognized increasingly as being associated with a risk of adverse cardiovascular events that is comparable with other major cardiovascular risk factors. It is plausible that sepsis survivors may be at risk of unidentified cardiovascular disease, and this may play a role in functional impairments seen after ICU discharge. Research Question: What is the prevalence of myocardial dysfunction after an ICU admission with sepsis and to what extent might it be associated with physical impairments in PICS? Study Design and Methods: Characterisation of Cardiovascular Function in ICU Survivors of Sepsis (CONDUCT-ICU) is a prospective, multicenter, pilot study characterizing cardiovascular function and functional impairments in survivors of sepsis taking place in the west of Scotland. Survivors of sepsis will be recruited at ICU discharge and followed up 6 to 10 weeks after hospital discharge. Biomarkers of myocardial injury or dysfunction (high sensitivity troponin and N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide) and systemic inflammation (C-reactive protein, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor alpha) will be measured in 69 patients at recruitment and at follow-up. In addition, a cardiovascular magnetic resonance substudy will be performed at follow-up in 35 patients. We will explore associations between cardiovascular magenetic resonance indexes of cardiac function, biomarkers of cardiac dysfunction and inflammation, and patient-reported outcome measures. Interpretation: CONDUCT-ICU will provide data regarding the cause and prevalence of cardiac dysfunction in survivors of sepsis and will explore associations with functional impairment. It will provide feasibility data and operational learning for larger studies investigating mechanisms of functional impairment after ICU admission and the association between sepsis and adverse cardiovascular events. Trial Registry: ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT05633290; URL: www.clinicaltrials.go

Pain and Problem Behavior in Cats and Dogs

We argue that there is currently an under-reporting of the ways in which pain can be associated with problem behavior, which is seriously limiting the recognition of this welfare problem. A review of the caseloads of 100 recent dog cases of several authors indicates that a conservative estimate of around a third of referred cases involve some form of painful condition, and in some instances, the figure may be nearly 80%. The relationship is often complex but always logical. Musculoskeletal but also painful gastro-intestinal and dermatological conditions are commonly recognized as significant to the animal’s problem behavior. The potential importance of clinical abnormalities such as an unusual gait or unexplained behavioral signs should not be dismissed by clinicians in general practice, even when they are common within a given breed. In general, it is argued that clinicians should err on the side of caution when there is a suspicion that a patient could be in pain by carefully evaluating the patient’s response to trial analgesia, even if a specific physical lesion has not been identified

The use of imepitoin (Pexion™) on fear and anxiety related problems in dogs – a case series

Fear and anxiety based problems are common in dogs. Alongside behaviour modification programmes, a range of psychopharmacological agents may be recommended to treat such problems, but few are licensed for use in dogs and the onset of action of some can be delayed. The low affinity partial benzodiazepine receptor agonist imepitoin (Pexion™, Boehringer Ingelheim) is licensed for treating canine epilepsy, has a fast onset of action in dogs and has demonstrated anxiolytic properties in rodent models. This case series reports on the use of imepitoin in a group of dogs identified as having fear/anxiety based problems. Twenty dogs were enrolled into the study, attended a behaviour consultation and underwent routine laboratory evaluation. Nineteen dogs proceeded to be treated with imepitoin orally twice daily (starting dose approximately 10 mg/kg, with alterations as required to a maximum 30 mg/kg) alongside a patient-specific behaviour modification plan for a period of 11–19 weeks. Progress was monitored via owner report through daily diary entries and telephone follow-up every two weeks. A Positive and Negative Activation Scale (PANAS) of temperament was also completed by owners during baseline and at the end of the study

Physical and chemical restraint of the aggressive dog

Chapter on physical and chemical restraint of the aggressive dog. practical techniques, medication options

Behavioural and Physiological Correlates of the Canine Frustration Questionnaire

Frustration is a negative emotional state implicated in a range of canine behaviour problems. The Canine Frustration Questionnaire (CFQ) is the first psychometric tool developed to assess frustration tendencies in dogs based on owner report. However, to date, no published studies have assessed behavioural and physiological correlates of this trait. A novel behaviour test battery was developed to induce frustration in dogs, mapping onto the CFQ. Forty-four dogs were recruited and filmed whilst undertaking the test battery, and a CFQ was completed by each owner. Targeted behavioural measures were assessed from this footage, based on hypotheses aimed at evaluating convergent and discriminant validity with facets of the CFQ. In addition, a saliva sample was collected pre- and post-testing for 39 dogs, and a cortisol assay performed using ELISA to provide a physiological measure of arousal. A range of predicted behavioural test measures (e.g., vocalising and lunging) positively correlated with CFQ scores. For 22 dogs with pre-test salivary cortisol levels of <4 ng/mL (indicative of normal arousal at baseline), cortisol change and post-test cortisol levels positively correlated with the CFQ PC5 ‘Frustration coping’ score. These results provide further evidence of the validity of frustration tendencies as measured by owner report through the CFQ