The Impact of Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Quantity on Spatial Learning

An implicit mapping of number to space via a “mental number line” occurs automatically in adulthood. Here, we systematically explore the influence of differing representations of quantity (no quantity, non-symbolic magnitudes, and symbolic numbers) and directional flow of stimuli (random flow, left-to-right, or right-to-left) on learning and attention via a match-to-sample working memory task. When recalling a cognitively demanding string of spatial locations, subjects performed best when information was presented right-to-left. When non-symbolic or symbolic numerical arrays were embedded in these spatial locations, and mental number line congruency prompted, this effect was attenuated and in some cases reversed. In particular, low-performing female participants who viewed increasing non-symbolic number arrays paired with the spatial locations exhibited better recall for left-to-right directional flow information relative to right-to-left, and better processing for the left side of space relative to the right side of space. The presence of symbolic number during spatial learning enhanced recall to a greater degree than non-symbolic number—especially for female participants, and especially when cognitive load is high—and this difference was independent of directional flow of information. We conclude that quantity representations have the potential to scaffold spatial memory, but this potential is subtle, and mediated by the nature of the quantity and the gender and performance level of the learner

Parental construction of spatial associations: Origins of culturally-mediated left-to-right spatial associations in toddlers

The mapping of numbers in space to form a "mental number line" has been consistently found in adults in many different number situations. Typically, this mapping goes in a culturally-consistent direction mediated by the direction of writing, and has also been found to generalize to other non-numerical, ordinal stimuli such as the alphabet. The primary theory regarding the origins of this spatial-mapping is a causal role of the visuo-motor process of automatically scanning and reading language. Yet, more recent findings demonstrate that this directional orientation begins to develop prior to formal reading, suggesting that other earlier experiences might also be responsible for the structuring of this attentional bias. The current study investigates if and how caregivers structure the environment for their child in a culturally-congruent direction prior to any formal reading instruction. The structure of pointing behavior was observed and scored as caregivers to one- and two-year-olds described images in a slideshow task, told stories via placement of tiles with objects on them, and created scenes for their child using magnets. These children had not yet entered preschool, but were old enough for caregivers to have begun to extensively describe the environment to them. Caregivers showed a left-to-right directional preference when leading their child's attention in the slideshow task. Caregivers displayed a trend of left-to-right tile structuring during the tile placement task, and showed no preferred structuring in the magnet scene-construction task