Psychological factors affecting equine performance

For optimal individual performance within any equestrian discipline horses must be in peak physical condition and have the correct psychological state. This review discusses the psychological factors that affect the performance of the horse and, in turn, identifies areas within the competition horse industry where current behavioral research and established behavioral modification techniques could be applied to further enhance the performance of animals. In particular, the role of affective processes underpinning temperament, mood and emotional reaction in determining discipline-specific performance is discussed. A comparison is then made between the training and the competition environment and the review completes with a discussion on how behavioral modification techniques and general husbandry can be used advantageously from a performance perspective

An investigation into stereotypic behaviour of the horse

Two putative functions of equine stereotypies (crib-biting and weaving) were proposed: 1) `behavioural need', the behaviour substitutes an unobtainable consummatory behaviour (e. g. eating); 2) `reward function', the behaviour counteracts the physiological effects of a stressor. Several hypotheses were established to test these putative functions within one experimental design. This experiment measured the physiological (heart-rate, plasma cortisol and plasma beta-endorphin) and behavioural responses to performing and preventing equine stereotypies (using the crib-strap and anti-weave bar) in cribbiting (n=4), weaving (n=3) and control horses (n=4). The behavioural effects of administering an opiate antagonist (naloxone) to these horses were also assessed. Results indicated that Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity (plasma cortisol) was significantly higher (p<0.05) immediately prior to the onset of stereotypy followed by a significant reduction and suggested that both crib-biting and weaving function as a `reward function' to reduce stress levels in the animal and not as a `behavioural need'. The crib-strap significantly elevated (p=0.05) mean plasma cortisol in crib-biting horses and a similar trend (p=0.07) was observed for the weaving group during the anti-weave bar treatment. Both crib-strap and anti-weave bar significantly elevated (p<0.05) plasma cortisol in the control horses. The continued performance of stereotypy during these prevention treatments and the significant physiological changes recorded for the control horses prevented a definite conclusion being drawn with respect to the hypotheses being tested. The results, however, did suggest that the use of the crib-strap and anti-weave bar are stressful to horses and thus may be a welfare concern. The opiate antagonist naloxone significantly reduced crib-biting by 84% (p=0.07) but not weaving (p=0.37) indicating that the former but not the latter of these stereotypies functions as a reward behaviour. However, resting behaviour was also significantly increased (p=0.02) in crib-biting horses suggesting that the reduction in stereotypy was due to a sedative effect of the opiate antagonist. However, since the effect was not measured in control or weaving animals these results may be interpreted differently. Finally, plasma beta-endorphin and prolactin (as an indicator of central nervous system [CNS] dopamine activity) levels were not significantly different between stereotypy and non-stereotypy horses. The development of equine stereotypy cannot, therefore, be attributed to substantial differences in CNS opioid or dopamine physiology. However, the low numbers of experimental animals used in this study requires that these results be interpreted with caution

A Review of Equine Sleep:Implications for Equine Welfare

Sleep is a significant biological requirement for all living mammals due to its restorative properties and its cognitive role in memory consolidation. Sleep is ubiquitous amongst all mammals but sleep profiles differ between species dependent upon a range of biological and environmental factors. Given the functional importance of sleep, it is important to understand these differences in order to ensure good physical and psychological wellbeing for domesticated animals. This review focuses specifically on the domestic horse and aims to consolidate current information on equine sleep, in relation to other species, in order to (a) identify both quantitatively and qualitatively what constitutes normal sleep in the horse, (b) identify optimal methods to measure equine sleep (logistically and in terms of accuracy), (c) determine whether changes in equine sleep quantity and quality reflect changes in the animal's welfare, and (d) recognize the primary factors that affect the quantity and quality of equine sleep. The review then discusses gaps in current knowledge and uses this information to identify and set the direction of future equine sleep research with the ultimate aim of improving equine performance and welfare. The conclusions from this review are also contextualized within the current discussions around the “social license” of horse use from a welfare perspective

Indices of comparative cognition:Assessing animal models of human brain function

Understanding the cognitive capacities of animals is important, because (a) several animal models of human neurodegenerative disease are considered poor representatives of the human equivalent and (b) cognitive capacities may provide insight into alternative animal models. We used a three-stage process of cognitive and neuroanatomical comparison (using sheep as an example) to assess the appropriateness of a species to model human brain function. First, a cognitive task was defined via a reinforcement-learning algorithm where values/constants in the algorithm were taken as indirect measures of neurophysiological attributes. Second, cognitive data (values/constants) were generated for the example species (sheep) and compared to other species. Third, cognitive data were compared with neuroanatomical metrics for each species (endocranial volume, gyrification index, encephalisation quotient, and number of cortical neurons). Four breeds of sheep (n = 15/sheep) were tested using the two-choice discrimination-reversal task. The 'reversal index' was used as a measure of constants within the learning algorithm. Reversal index data ranked sheep as third in a table of species that included primates, dogs, and pigs. Across all species, number of cortical neurons correlated strongest against the reversal index (r2 = 0.66, p = 0.0075) followed by encephalization quotient (r2 = 0.42, p = 0.03), endocranial volume (r2 = 0.30, p = 0.08), and gyrification index (r2 = 0.16, p = 0.23). Sheep have a high predicted level of cognitive capacity and are thus a valid alternative model for neurodegenerative research. Using learning algorithms within cognitive tasks increases the resolution of methods of comparative cognition and can help to identify the most relevant species to model human brain function and dysfunction.CHDI In

Visual attention and cognitive performance in sheep

Cognitive probes are increasingly being used as an inferred measure of the emotional (and thus welfare) status of the animal. This reflects the bidirectional and interactive nature of emotional and cognitive systems. To date, cognitive paradigms have focused on how the emotional system biases expected outcome of prospective actions within goal-orientated scenarios. Evidence, however, suggests that negative affective state can also modulate attentional mechanisms. Measuring attention alongside other current tests of cognitive bias may provide greater resolution in the measurement of animal welfare. As a starting point for developing cognitive tasks of attentional control, we decided to assess the basic relationship between visual attention and cognitive performance in a farm animal species (sheep). Variation in visual attention and cognitive performance was sought through testing of four different breeds of upland and lowland sheep (Beulah, Bluefaced Leicester, Texel and Suffolk; n = 15/breed) on a visual attention task and a two-choice visual discrimination task (to measure cognitive performance). Cognitive performance and visual attention differed significantly between breeds (F 3,46 = 4.70, p = 0.006 and F3,5o = 6.05, p < 0.001 respectively). The least visually attentive breed of sheep (Blue face Leicester) had the lowest level of cognitive performance and the most visually attentive breed (Suffolk) had the highest level of cognitive performance. A weak but significant relationship between vigilance/fearfulness and visual attention was also observed (t44 = 3.91, p = < 0.001; r2 = 0.23) that appeared to adhere to the Yerkes-Dodson law, with both high and low levels of vigilance/fearfulness having a negative effect on visual attention. These results demonstrate a discernible relationship between visual attention and cognitive performance that provides a basis for further exploring attention systems in the context of changes in animal affective state and thus animal welfare.CHDI Inc