Consumers’ salient beliefs regarding foods from edible insects in Kenya: a qualitative study using concepts from the theory of planned behaviour

Population growth, urbanization and climate change, are among the factors that have created uncertainties and pressures on current global food and economic systems. Agricultural intensification can no longer support the increasing demand for food, especially of protein origin. Consequently, pressure is mounting on the supply side (private sector) to develop viable alternative sources of protein’ foods. Insects as food and consumption of foods from edible insects (FEI) are being promoted as one potential solution to the declining access to protein foods. However, one of the challenges facing the private sector is to demonstrate the efficacy of FEI programmes in the face of limited information regarding consumer - psychographic characteristics including their attitudes, values, interests and beliefs. The aim of the study was to explore the salient beliefs underlying consumer attitudes towards FEI consumption in Kenya. To achieve this objective, six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted (n= 43), three with only female participants and the other three with a mixed gender. The FGD script was coded using the Theory of Planned Behaviour theoretical framework. The results show that, salient beliefs related to taste, availability, convenience, affordability and other benefits beyond nutrition, are the main determinants of the participants’ intentions to consume FEI. Intentions are also influenced by the perceived feelings regarding the social referents, including family members, peers, religious leaders and health officials; and perceived behavioural control factors such as perceived risks on their food choices, perceived convenience and availability. While designing local programmes to promote FEI consumption, participants support the idea of small groups, but expresses concern about the time of day (evening preferred), length and location of the group session. However, many participants are not receptive to receiving telephone messages, although they are open to the idea of receiving phone calls. The study findings provide unique insights, among them, cultural beliefs that underlies consumer attitudes towards consuming FEI. Additionally, the results suggest possible approaches and practical interventions that can be used to promote FEI consumption in specific regions of Kenya.Key words: Foods from edible insects, theory of planned behaviour, Salient belief

Assessment of Technical Efficiency of Open Field Production in Kiambu County, Kenya (Stochastic Frontier Approach)

The study conducted an estimate of the mean technical efficiency and the determinants of technical efficiency for the open field tomato farmers in Kiambu, Kenya. A multistage sampling technique was used to draw a sample of 75 respondents who participated in the study. The method of analysis used was a two stage approach; a Cobb Douglas stochastic frontier analysis and a Tobit regression to compute the mean technical efficiency and determine factors influencing technical efficiency respectively. All the analyses were computed using Stata versions 13. Results indicated a mean technical efficiency of 65 percent ranging from 26.7 percent to 96.3 percent implying that there is room to increase efficiency by 35 percent. Education, family size and experience positively influenced technical efficiency while gender and farm size had a negative significant influence. The study demonstrated that farmers had a lower level of experience (5 years) and education (9 years) as compared to the national and other local areas within the country despite their positive significant influence on technical efficiency. The implication from the study findings is that greater attention should be paid towards farmer training to enhance their knowledge and farming experience with regard to tomatoes. A few farmers had received credit (16%), extension (14%) and agriculture support facilities (8%). Extension is very important as it bridges the gap between researchers and farmers whereas credit access enables farmers to buy farming inputs like fertilizers. Investments in farmer education without appropriate dissemination techniques may not cause any impacts. The study therefore recommends that accessibility to these services be enhanced

Smallholder Dairy Farming Characterisation, Typologies and Determinants in Nakuru and Nyandarua Counties, Kenya

Kenya's dairy industry is the largest and one of the most successful in Africa. Private sector dominates the sector and milk production is majorly from small-scale farms. Despite the policies in place for the dairy inefficiencies and inadequacies in production and commercialization that differs from farmer to farmer. This study established the smallholder dairy farming typologies and their underlying determinants. The study obtained data from a cross section survey of farmers in Nyandarua and Nakuru counties of Kenya, where dairy activities are predominant. Data was collected from 380 smallholder dairy farmers identified using stratified random sampling. Data analysis was conducted by Principal Components Analysis and Cluster Analysis. Results of Principal Component Analysis showed that the smallholders’ dairy farming differed because of output, land, household assets and infrastructure components. Cluster analysis results indicated three significantly different smallholder dairy farming typologies, i.e., Low resource endowed and lower market oriented, moderate resource endowed and moderate market oriented and high resource endowed and high market oriented. The determinants of smallholder dairy typologies were land factors, years of dairy farming, stock of dairy animals kept, labor engaged, household income, farming assets, dairy output and consumption levels and costs of production. The study recommended policies that would increase access to land through land reform processes, financial accessibility and adequate infrastructure needed by the smallholder dairy farmers

Adoption of ‘push-pull’ Biological Control of Striga (Striga Hermonthica) Weeds, Among Smallholder Maize Farmers in Homa Bay, Kenya

Maize is the most important staple food for 96 percent of Kenya’s population. However, maize productivity in Kenya is low averaging 1800kg/ha compared to a yield potential of over 6000kg/ha. Weed management has been attributed as oneof the key factors affecting Maize yields. Among the weeds, striga (Striga hermonthica) is perhaps the most critical due to its ability to retard maize growth by competing for its nutrients with farmers reporting yield losses of up to 80 percentin infested fields. In recent times, the ‘push-pull’ biological method of striga weed control has been developed. The innovation controls striga and stem borers by using repellent (push) and traps (pull) plants. Although there is evidence showing that thismethod is effective and environmentally friendly, few farmers have adopted it in striga infested areas of Homa Bay, in Kenya. This article assesses factors that influence farmers’ choice towards adoption of this push-pull innovation. A random sample of 96 smallholder farmers from Mbita and Homa Bay sub-counties were interviewed. Data analysis involved descriptive statistics, and probit regression model. Results show that the probability of adopting push-pull biological control increases with access to extension services (p<0.01); household size (p<0.05); returns from maize but decreases with limited access to markets (p<0.05). The findings suggest that addressing labour sourcing arrangements, enhancing the profitability of maize farming and putting in place the right institutional arrangements for extension and access to markets would enhance the adoption of the push-pull innovation

The influence of privatised agricultural extension on downward accountability to smallholder tea farmers

Purpose To assess the extent to which privatised extension service, which is premised to be demand-driven, delivers downward accountability to smallholder farmers who are both owners and users of agricultural services. Design/methodology/approach The research collected data through focus group discussions with smallholder tea farmers and key informant interviews after which the information were corroborated with semi-structured interviews with 104 smallholder farmers. Findings Our findings show that KTDA (Kenya Tea Development Agency) extension service has in recent years embraced methodologies that allow two-way information exchange and farmers’ involvement in planning, implementing and evaluation of extension programmes. While this transition has provided opportunities for increased accountability and empowerment of smallholder farmers, downward accountability is limited by among others; presence of multiple accountabilities, a heavy top-down governance structure, higher incentives for upward accountability, limited resourcing of extension delivery, excessive workload and unrealistic targets on the part of extension staff and weak extension–research–farmer linkages. Practical implications The findings of this study may be used by policymakers, extension practitioners and organisations delivering extension services to improve downward accountability and quality of advisory services. Theoretical implications The paper contributes to the debate on outcomes of privatisation on extension provision using the accountability lens in an area dominated by perceptions on costs and payment for the services. Originality/value The literature on downward accountability on privatised extension services is lacking. The paper also extends the framework for assessing the performance of pluralistic extension services to develop and apply a framework for assessing downward accountability in privatised extension

Institutional Innovations for Smallholder Agricultural Production Systems in Kenya: A Case of Smallholder Tea Subsector

The smallholder tea sub-sector which is part of the larger Kenyan tea industry has enjoyed considerable success since its inception in the early 1960s. The planted area under the smallholder system, expanded from 2,522 hectares in 1962 to over 100,000 hectares in 2015; while annual production rose from 1.3 million kgs of green leaf to over 1 billion kgs of green leaf over the same period. Other industrial crops such as coffee, sisal and cotton that previously thrived have struggled to survive under diminished government direct investment in the agricultural sector. The smallholder tea subsector has conversely, managed to endure systemic constraints and challenges to remain competitive. This paper shows that while the relative success of the subsector can be explained by the adoption of modern technologies, there are other relevant factors including policy and institutional that KTDA has embraced to remain competitive. Evidence from the study suggests that innovative institutional arrangements and support systems which have been associated with enhanced farmers earnings. In addition, the participatory governance framework put in place post 2000, innovative approaches to the provision of advisory services and information sharing systems have provided an incentive for smallholder farmers to produce high quality teas that directly translated into better earnings. The presence of participatory governance, innovative and efficient systems that reduce costs and enhance farmers earnings are critical success factors for any smallholder agricultural value chain

Effect of climate smart agriculture technologies on crop yields: Evidence from potato production in Kenya

Climate change is one of the current global issues of concern given that it is affecting agricultural production. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), which frequently experiences severe weather and natural disasters, is particularly vulnerable to climate change. Even though numerous measures are being promoted to mitigate climate change in SSA, little evidence exists regarding the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies in potato farming and its effect on yield. CSA is widely acknowledged as a crucial technique for farmers to adapt to climate change and raise agricultural productivity. This study investigated the effects of CSA technology adoption among potato farmers in Kenya. A descriptive survey was adopted. A multistage sampling technique was used to randomly select 350 potato farming households in Nyandarua County. Data was collected using a questionnaire and interview techniques. Propensity Score Matching (PSM) was used to evaluate the effects of CSA technologies on potato yields. The results indicated that on average potato farmers adopted 8 out of the 18 CSA technologies. The PSM results indicated that the adoption of CSA technologies improved potato yields. Adoption of seed management technologies enhanced potato yield by 61 % followed by soil nutrient management, crop improvement practices, seed management, and crop protection techniques by 50 %, 41 %, 40 %, and 39 %, respectively. This implies that smallholder farmers' adoption of climate-smart technologies is critical for increasing and maintaining potato yield. However, adopting water management technologies like water harvesting and irrigation negatively affected potato yield. The study discusses the implications of these findings

Intentions to consume foods from edible insects and the prospects for transforming the ubiquitous biomass into food

Edible insects are a potentially less burdensome source of proteins on the environment than livestock for a majority of rural consumers. Hence, edible insects are a timely idea to address the challenges of the supply side to sustainably meet an increasing demand for food. The objective of this paper is twofold. The first is to identify and compare rural-households’ intentions to consume insect-based foods among households drawn from two regions in Kenya—one where consumption of insects is common and the other where the practice is uncommon. The second is to explore consumers’ trust in sources of information regarding quality and appropriateness of food items. The study employed an extended theory of planned behaviour and involved 432 participants. Results indicate that rural households have positive intentions to consume insect-based foods and those intentions are higher for individuals who are more familiar with the practice. Results also show that information sources from industry are more trusted than those from the media. Further, the study revealed that control variables such as perceived availability of insect-based foods and their level of fit with the culinary practices have a higher influence on consumption intentions than general attitudes. In addition, age of the respondent, gender, household size and level of formal education, significantly influence the consumption intentions. The study discusses the implications of these findings in the development of sustainable agri-food systems

Consumers’ Salient Beliefs Regarding Foods From Edible Insects In Kenya: A Qualitative Study Using Concepts From The Theory Of Planned Behaviour

Population growth, urbanization and climate change, are among the factors that have created uncertainties and pressures on current global food and economic systems. Agricultural intensification can no longer support the increasing demand for food, especially of protein origin. Consequently, pressure is mounting on the supply side (private sector) to develop viable alternative sources of protein’ foods. Insects as food and consumption of foods from edible insects (FEI) are being promoted as one potential solution to the declining access to protein foods. However, one of the challenges facing the private sector is to demonstrate the efficacy of FEI programmes in the face of limited information regarding consumer - psychographic characteristics including their attitudes, values, interests and beliefs. The aim of the study was to explore the salient beliefs underlying consumer attitudes towards FEI consumption in Kenya. To achieve this objective, six focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted (n= 43), three with only female participants and the other three with a mixed gender. The FGD script was coded using the Theory of Planned Behaviour theoretical framework. The results show that, salient beliefs related to taste, availability, convenience, affordability and other benefits beyond nutrition, are the main determinants of the participants’ intentions to consume FEI. Intentions are also influenced by the perceived feelings regarding the social referents, including family members, peers, religious leaders and health officials; and perceived behavioural control factors such as perceived risks on their food choices, perceived convenience and availability. While designing local programmes to promote FEI consumption, participants support the idea of small groups, but expresses concern about the time of day (evening preferred), length and location of the group session. However, many participants are not receptive to receiving telephone messages, although they are open to the idea of receiving phone calls. The study findings provide unique insights, among them, cultural beliefs that underlies consumer attitudes towards consuming FEI. Additionally, the results suggest possible approaches and practical interventions that can be used to promote FEI consumption in specific regions of Kenya