PROF. DR. SC. FOREST JOSIP BALEN ANLASSLICH DES 110. JAHRESTAGES VON SEINER GEBURT

Autor opisuje životni put, stručne i znanstvene uspjehe sveučilišnog profesora dr. se. Josipa Balena, dipl. inž. šumarstva, rođenog u Krmpotama, kotar Novi Vinodolski, a pokopanog u Tukumanu u Argentini. Bogati i plodni stručni i znanstveni put Josipa Balena vezan je uz šumu i šumarstvo s posebnim naglaskom na znanstveni, stručni i sveučilišni nastavni rad. Studij šumarstva završava u Banskoj Šćavnici (Slovačka), radi po različitim šumarijama diljem Hrvatske, a 1919. postaje upravitelj Nadzorništva za pošumljavanje krša u Senju. Radi na doktorskoj disertaciji vezanoj za uzgojne i ekološke probleme krša te je 1923. godine na Gospodarsko-šumarskom fakultetu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu obranio disertaciju pod naslovom Bura i njezino značenje za pošumljavanje krša. To je prva obranjena disertacija iz područja šumarstva na Sveučilištu u Zagrebu. Godine 1935. premješten je u Beograd u Ministarstvo šuma i rada, 1927. postaje izvanredni profesor, a 1930. redoviti profesor na zemunskom Šumarskom fakultetu, na Katedri za Podizanje i gajenje šuma i Zaštitu šuma. Istodobno objavljuje velik broj stručnih i znanstvenih radova, pretežno o uzgajanju šuma, te šest samostalnih knjiga, od kojih posebno ističemo značajna djela O proredama, 1929. g. Naš goli krš 1931. g., Šumski rasadnici 1938. g. i dr. Osnivanjem NDH imenovanje 1941. savjetnikom u Ministarstvu bogoštovlja i nastave, nakon toga postaje župan županstva pri Poglavniku, redoviti profesor na Poljodjelsko-šumarskom fakultetu u Zagrebu, nadstojnik Zavoda za obranu šuma, zatim ministar u Ministarstvu narodnog gospodarstva, a nakon toga ministar šuma i ruda. Kao i mnoge Hrvate, ratni vihor nosi ga u Argentinu zajedno s još 12 hrvatskih šumarskih stručnjaka. Zapošljava se kao tehnički savjetnik u Ravnateljstvu šuma, organizira i izvodi pošumljavanja eukaliptusima i topolama na 50.000 ha površine. Godine 1956. odlazi u Čile i postaje profesor uzgajanja šuma i šumarske politike na novootvorenom Šumarskom fakultetu u Valdiviji, direktor Šumarskog instituta u istom gradu, Godine 1960. vraća se u Argentinu kao profesor uzgajanja šuma na fakultetu u Santiago de Estero, Universitat Nacional de Cordoba. Godine 1960. osniva prvi samostalni šumarski fakultet u Tukumanu, gdje je i profesor na Katedri za pošumljavanje, a nakon toga osniva Šumarski institut za pošumljavanje gdje je postavljen za direktora. Umire 1964. godine, a pokopan je uz velike počasti u Tucumanu. Josip Balen daoje velik doprinos razvoju šumarske struke, znanosti i nastave i u Hrvatskoj i u Argentini i Čileu. Uvjereni smo da bi njegov doprinos hrvatskom i svjetskom šumarstvu bio još veći da nije nasilno otrgnut i prognan iz domovine Hrvatske.The author deals with the life history of prof. dr. se. Josip Balen, his successful professional and scientific career as the University professor and forestory engineer. He was born at Krmpote, county of Novi Vinodolski, and buried at Tucuman, Argentina. The rich and prolific professional and scientific course of Josip Balen was bound to the woods and forestry with the special accent to his scientific, professional and educational work on the University. He graduated his studies on forestry at Banska Šćavnica (Slovakia), worked in various forestry administrations all over Croatia to become in 1919 director of the Inspectorate for the afforestation of karst at Senj. His doctor\u27s dissertation on the cultivation and ecological problems of the karst entitled "Bora and its importance in the afforestation of the Karst", was successfully defended at the Faculty of Forestry, the University of Zagreb, in 1923. It was the first dissertation from the sphere of forestry defended at the University of Zagreb. In 1925 he was transferred to Belgrade at the Ministry of forestry and ores. In 1927 he became the associate professor and in 1930 professor at the Faculty of Forestry, Dept. for growing and cultivation and protection of woods at Zemun. At the same time he published a great number of his professional and scientific works mainly on the cultivation of forests, then six autonomous books of which some of his important works have to be pointed out. Those were "On thins" (1919), "Our bare karst" (1931), "Forestry workers" (1938). After the Indipendent State of Croatia (NDH) was established, he was appointed the counsellor to the Ministry of religious observance and educational system. Afterwards he was appointed a district prefect at the district office about Poglavnik, then the professor at the Faculty of the agriculture and forestry at Zagreb. He was also acting as a director of the Institute for the protection of forests, then held the office of minister at the Ministry for the national economics and after that was appointed the minister of forests and ores. The storms of war took him together with some twelve Croatian forest experts and a lot of other Croatians to Argentina. He assumed there a post of a technical councellor in the Directorate of forests, where he organized and carried through the afforestation with eucalyptuses and poplars on the area of some 50.000 h. In 1956. he was transferred to Chile where he was employed as a professor for the cultivation of forests at a newly opened Faculty of forestry at Valdivia and also as a director of the Forest Insitute at the same city. In 1960 he came back to Argentina and worked as a professor for the cultivation of forests at Faculty of Santiago de Estero, Universitat Nacional de Cordoba. In the same year he founded the first indipendent Faculty of forestry at Tucuman and assumed there a post of the professor at Department for the afforestation. Afterwards he founded also the Forest institute for the afforestation, where he acted as a director. He died in 1964 and was buried with great honours at Tucuman. The contribution of Josip Balen in the development of the forest profession, science and school system, not only in Croatia but in Argentina and Chile as well, was really great. We are quite sure that his contribution to the Croatian and world-wide forestry would be even greater if he was not so violently expelled from his native country Croatia.Der Autor beschreibt den Lebensweg un die professionellen und wissenschaftlichen Erfolge des diplomierten Forstwirtes und Universitätsprofessors Josip Balen, der in Krmpote geboren (Bezirk Novi Vinodolski) und in Tukuman (Argentinien) begraben wurde. Sein fruchtbarer und wissenschaftlicher Weg war mit dem Wald und Forstwesen gebunden, mit besonderem Akzent auf der wissenschaftlichen, profesionellen und pädagogischen Tätigkeit an der Universität. Das Studium der Forstkunde beendete er in Banska Sćavnica in Slowakei, und arbeitete danach in verschiedenen Forstämten Kroatiens. 1919 wurde er Leiter der Verwaltung fiir Bewaldung des Karstes. Seine an der Forstwirtschaftlichen Universität in Zagreb verteidigte Dissertation unter dem Titel "Bora und ihre Bedeutung fiir die Bewaldung des Karstes" war die erste Dissertation die an der Universität in Zagreb aus dem Gebiet des Forstwesens verteidigt wurde. 1935 wurde er aus Zagreb in Beograd, in das Ministerium für Wälder und Erzen versetzt, 1927 wurde er ausserordentlicher und 1930 ordentlicher Professor an der Forstwirtschaftlichen Fakultät in Zemun, an der Stuhl fiir Zucht und Schutz der Wälder. Zu gleicher Zeit veröffentlichte er viele profesionelle und wissenschaftliche Werke aus der Waldzucht und sechs selbstständige Biicher: "Zur Lichtung der Wälder" 1929, "Unser Karst" 1931, "Pflanzstätte in den Wäldern" 1938 u.a. Als der unabhängige Staat Kroatien begriindet wurde, wurde er zum Rat im Ministerium fiir Kultus und Unterricht ernannt, danach wurde er Gespann der Gespannschaft bei dem "Poglavnik", ordentlicher Professor an der Universität für Bodenkultur und Forstwesen, Leiter der Anstalt fur den Waldbau, Minister im Volkswirschaftsministerium und Minister fiir Walder und Erzen. Wie viele andere Kroaten, emigrierte er zusammen mit 12 kroatischen Fachförstern nach Argentinien. Dort wurde er technischer Rat in der Direktion der Wälder und organisierte die Bewaldung mit Eukalypten und Pappelbäumen auf der Oberfläche von 50.000 ha. Im Jahre 1956 zog er nach Chile fort, wo er Professor an der Universität in Santiago da Estero wurde. 1960 begrtindete er den ersten Institut fiir die Bewaldung, wo er zum Leiter ernannt wurde. Er starb 1964 und wurde in Tukuman mit großer Ehre begraben. Josip Balen gab großen Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Forstkunde und der Forstunterricht in Kroatien, Argentinien und Chile. Wir sind iiberzeugt, dass sein Beitrag zur kroatischen und weltlichen Forstkunde noch größer ware, wenn er aus seiner Heimat nicht so zwangsweise vertrieben gewesen ware

Ivan Merz, participant in the First World War from 1916 to 1918

Ivan Merz, danas hrvatski katolički blaženik, bio je aktivni sudionik Prvoga svjetskog rata. Nakon kratkoga boravka na Theresianische Militär Akademie u Wiener Neustadtu od rujna do prosinca 1914., odlazi na studij prava i književnosti u Beč. U prosincu 1915. godine pozvan je u Banja Luku obaviti novački liječnički pregled. Temeljem Obrambenog zakona u ljeto 1915. bio je mobiliziran, zbog čega je prekinuo započeti studij u Beču te početkom veljače 1916. u sklopu 2. bosanskohercegovačke pukovnije iz Banje Luke po zapovijedi upućen u Lebring kraj Graza. Na talijanskom bojištu proveo je dvije godine. O strahotama rata piše u svojem opsežnom dnevniku. Sudjelujući u ratu, Ivan Merz je doživio duboko obraćenje prema Bogu. Nakon rata započinje dubok religiozni život koji ga vodi prema svetosti.Blessed Ivan Merz, from Croatia, was an active participant in the First World War. After a short stay at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt from September to December 1914, he went on to study law and literature in Vienna. In December 1915 he was called to Banja Luka to take the recruitment medical examination. Based on the Defense law, he was drafted in the summer 1915, and had to stop the studies he had begun in Vienna, and at the beginning of February 1916 he was sent to Lebring near Graz as a member of the 2nd Bosnia and Herzegovina Regiment from Banja Luka. He spent two years on the Italian front. In his extensive diary he described the horrors of war. Participating in the war, Ivan Merz experienced a profound conversion to God. After the war he started the deep religious life that led him towards holiness

Ivan Merz, participant in the First World War from 1916 to 1918

Ivan Merz, danas hrvatski katolički blaženik, bio je aktivni sudionik Prvoga svjetskog rata. Nakon kratkoga boravka na Theresianische Militär Akademie u Wiener Neustadtu od rujna do prosinca 1914., odlazi na studij prava i književnosti u Beč. U prosincu 1915. godine pozvan je u Banja Luku obaviti novački liječnički pregled. Temeljem Obrambenog zakona u ljeto 1915. bio je mobiliziran, zbog čega je prekinuo započeti studij u Beču te početkom veljače 1916. u sklopu 2. bosanskohercegovačke pukovnije iz Banje Luke po zapovijedi upućen u Lebring kraj Graza. Na talijanskom bojištu proveo je dvije godine. O strahotama rata piše u svojem opsežnom dnevniku. Sudjelujući u ratu, Ivan Merz je doživio duboko obraćenje prema Bogu. Nakon rata započinje dubok religiozni život koji ga vodi prema svetosti.Blessed Ivan Merz, from Croatia, was an active participant in the First World War. After a short stay at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt from September to December 1914, he went on to study law and literature in Vienna. In December 1915 he was called to Banja Luka to take the recruitment medical examination. Based on the Defense law, he was drafted in the summer 1915, and had to stop the studies he had begun in Vienna, and at the beginning of February 1916 he was sent to Lebring near Graz as a member of the 2nd Bosnia and Herzegovina Regiment from Banja Luka. He spent two years on the Italian front. In his extensive diary he described the horrors of war. Participating in the war, Ivan Merz experienced a profound conversion to God. After the war he started the deep religious life that led him towards holiness

Silvicultural Treatments as a Method of Increasing the Value of Private Forests in Gorski Kotar

U radu su izneseni podaci o privatnim šumama Gorskog kotara koje zauzimaju 22 % od ukupne površine šuma i šumskih zemljišta. Izneseni su temeljni stanišni podaci i podaci o šumskim zajednicama u kojima se one razvijaju, kao i strukturni pokazatelji koji daju realnu sliku njihovog današnjeg stanja. Iako su ove šume, za razliku od ostalih privatnih šuma kod nas, već 30 godina uređene, one još uvijek pokazuju sve slabosti koje su uočljive i u ostalim privatnim šumama (usitnjenost, mala drvna zaliha i dr.). Zbog toga valja istaći da je velika pogreška danas svrstavati ove šume u raznodobne, jer su one u stvarnosti 60 % visoke regularne, 13 % panjače, a 27 % preborne šume. Opisani su uzgojni zahvati i drugi radovi koje u njima treba provoditi, kako bi im se povećala gospodarska i općekorisna vrijednost. Izneseni su podaci o strukturnim pokazateljima tih šuma na površini cijelog Gorskog kotara, koji ustvari na najbolji način ocrtavaju njihovo današnje stanje, posebno glede gospodarske i općekorisne vrijednosti. Opisani su zahvati njege i obnove koje treba provoditi u prebornim šumama putem prebornih sječa, kao i zahvati njege i obnove u regularnim šumama visokog i niskog uzgojnog oblika. Preporučeni su radovi njega i popunjavanje s plemenitim vrstama bjelogorice i crnogorice onih površina na kojima se danas događa prirodna sukcesija pionirskih vrsta drveća. Preporučene su i opisane one vrste drveća koje su prikladne za podizanje kultura plemenitih, brzorastućih i tržišno vrijednih vrsta bjelogorice i crnogorice na napuštenim pašnjačkim i drugim površinama. Posebno je istaknuta važnost organizacije radova na pridobivanju i plasiranju na tržište drva za bioenergiju nakon izvedenih zahvata njege, podizanja i obnove šuma.Privately owned forests in Croatia cover an area of 581,770 ha, which is 22 % of the total area of forests and forestland in the Republic of Croatia. The total growing stock in private forests in Croatia amounts to 78 301 000 m3, or 20 % of the overall growing stock of the entire forest management area. The average growing stock is 163 m3/ha and the increment is 4.4 m3/ha or 2.7 %. Privately owned forests in the area managed by Delnice Forest Administration extend over 22,380 ha. These forests are presently classified into uneven-aged forests, which is not conducive to their future management. Bearing in mind their condition regarding the silvicultural form, biological properties and ecological requirements of the tree species participating in their formation, the management of these forests should follow the methods applied to forests of high silvicultural form or seed forests, which are regular and selection forests, and to coppices. Forests of high silvicultural form are regular or even-aged seed forests covering an area of 13,264 ha, while selection seed forests cover an area of 6,085 ha. Regular coppice forests are found over an area of 3,031 ha. Placing these different forest forms into a uniform uneven-aged class prevents, among other things, the application of those necessary silvicultural operations which are aimed at attaining better stability, productivity and sustainability, or sustainable development. Based on the above structural indicators, especially the growing stock and increment of these forests, we may conclude that the current condition of private forests in this area is equally bad and worrying as that of other private forests in Croatia. Such a situation may be attributed to a number of factors, such as, for example, the inexpert application of silvicultural treatments, the disintegration of rural environments, property fragmentation, the owners’ social status, the insecurity of private ownership, the length of the production cycle, insufficient control and sanctioning, and finally, the disobeyance of legal regulations. Some objective reasons for which these forests are difficult to manage are: – Fragmentation of property (the average size of a plot is preceded by two zeros). Unsolved ownership-legal relationships, as well as an unstimulating, slow and expensive system of solving ownership problems, – Disproportion between the cadastre of cultures and the real condition in the field, and the disproportion between the cadastre and the land registry, – Management at the level of cadastre units prevents the application of more complex management with forest resources, – Prejudices of forest owners towards pooling resources (Cooperatives) due to negative experiences from the recent past, – Movement of the younger, more vital part of the population from rural into urban areas. Forest owners and forest owners’ associations should direct their activities concerned with increasing forest quality toward the following fields, treatments and activities: – Tending and regeneration treatments in selection forests with selection cuts. – Tending and regeneration treatments in regular high forests and coppices. – Tending and restocking those areas subject to natural succession of pioneer species with valuable broadleaved and coniferous species. – Establishing cultures of valuable, fast-growing and marketable broadleaved and coniferous species over abandoned grasslands and other areas. – Organizing timber harvesting and marketing, as well as utilization of timber for bioenergy after the forests have been tended, established and regenerated. Selection management is the most suitable method for fir forests or for those forests in which the fir is the dominant species, such as, for example, mixed forests of fir and beech, fir, beech and spruce, and fir and spruce. The management goals in a selection forest are accomplished by selecting and marking the trees to be cut. These management goals are: raise mixed selection stands which will ensure good quality increment, stand stability and plentiful natural new growth; use the productive site capacity to the maximum; and achieve the highest production values. Felling operations in a selection forest achieve multiple goals of tending and regeneration, forming the selection structure, utilizing forests and maintaining their hygiene. There are two groups of silvicultural procedures; tending of the young generation – young growth and young forest, and selection, which includes thinning and harvesting mature trees. All the procedures in a selection forest are temporally and spatially concentrated, thus creating an indelible whole. If any of the above activities is omitted, the structure of the selection forest will be disrupted and its increment, regeneration and stability will be affected. Tree marking in a selection forest should always take account of the goals for which this activity is undertaken. These goals are permanent regeneration, stand tending, continuous maintenance of the selection structure, stand utilization and maintenance of the sanitary-hygienic function. In a normal selection forest with normal growing stock, a 10-year annual increment is cut. Under normal circumstances, this is 25 % of the total growing stock in the stand. If the growing stock is higher than normal, cutting intensity should not exceed 30 %. If it is lower, cutting intensity may be reduced to 15 %. This is borderline intensity which should not be exceeded. This means that cutting should be postponed until another cutting cycle is over, in this case another 10 years. Higher or lower intensities could endanger the selection structure, i.e. the increment, regeneration and stability of the selection stand. Inappropriately applied intensities cannot maintain a selection stand in the optimal structural conditions which will ensure maximal production and optimal regeneration. Regrettably, this is one of the most serious current problems in selection management and selection forests. Beech and spruce stands which have officially been classified as uneven-aged stands and which have not been managed selectively but with selection cuts show a negative developmental trend. This kind of management results in decreased growing stock, absence of natural regeneration, reduced tree quality and lower increment. In such stands management based on regular principles should be organized over small areas (each structural unit – special silvicultural treatment). Silvicultural treatments are spatially divided over small areas. In other words, each structural unit represents a special part of the stand which requires a special silvicultural treatment. They are spatially separated but temporally concentrated. Management with shelterwood cuts in small areas with a longer regeneration period achieves biological diversity of beech and spruce forests. This type of regeneration enables, over a longer time period, a good yield of seeds of the principal and other tree species and the survival of their young generation. Regeneration in regular forests is generally done in 3 cuts (preparatory, seed and final) and less frequently in 4 or 5 cuts, where subsequent cuts are introduced. The preparatory cut is undertaken with 20 % intensity and the seed cut with 50 % intensity in a good seed year. The remaining wood volume is cut as needed, either with one or two subsequent cuts or, more frequently, with one final cut. Regular forests are tended throughout the life cycle of the stand, that is, until the shelterwood cuts are applied. Tending consists of the following stages: tending of the young growth after the final cut, cleaning in the developmental stage of the young growth and saplings, and tending with thinning. Tending of the young growth after the final cut is usually done once only, while cleaning or negative selection is done once or twice until the moment the stand reaches its maximal height increment. At this stage future trees are identified, which in beech and spruce forests takes place around the age of 30. At this age stands may be tended with thinning. Coppices of beech, pubescent oak and other hard broadleaves are regenerated with shelterwood cuts. The goal is to convert a coppice into the forest of high silvicultural form or seed forest. Regenerating a coppice with clearcutting and planting conifer species is a serious mistake. Conifers may be planted in degraded forest soils which have lost the properties that provide the parent climatogenic stand with optimal conditions for growth and development. Coppices should be tended throughout the rotation period. The tending stages in a coppice include reducing the number of poor quality and superfluous shoots on the stump, tending coppices with cleaning or negative selection, and tending coppices with thinning or positive selection. In the current economic and social conditions in Croatia arable areas are systematically being reduced and the size of abandoned agricultural land is increasing. These areas are subjected to the spontaneous expansion of less valuable tree species and shrubs, classified as pioneer species. Being the first to occur, they are spontaneously followed by transitional species. The 100-year-long process ends with the occurrence of principal or climatogenic species (fir, beech, oaks). Pioneer and transitional tree species gradually convert degraded forest soil into forest soil suitable for climatogenic or principal species. The basic tree species that bear the characteristics of pioneer species are those from the genera of alders, willows, poplars, birches and others. Domestic, autochthonous tree species from other genera, with the exception of the genera of oaks, beech and fir, belong to transitional tree species. Together with pioneer species, they gradually colonize abandoned agricultural and other lands. Forest cultures should be established on abandoned agricultural areas in order to increase their market and non-market values. These cultures are established by planting broadleaved species from the genera of wild cherry, pear, apple, as well as maple, ash, lime, whitebeam, rowan, service tree, wild service tree, bird cherry, walnut, and others. Coniferous species to be planted include species from the genera of spruces, larches and pines. The choice of the tree species depends on the site conditions that prevail in the treated area, where the soil and the climate have a decisive role. The pioneer, transitional or secondary tree species have an important role in the structure of all Croatian natural forests. They are particularly suitable for the establishment of cultures which supply good quality and valuable timber. Timber of all these species is applied in mechanical and chemical processing industries, and in energy production. The establishment of energy forests with short rotations and small planting distances will gain increasing importance in Croatian forestry. Due to the present energy crisis, the share of timber in the energy balance of the most developed European countries is constantly growing. Timber from forests has been accepted everywhere in Europe as an important and renewable source of bioenergy. Although the Croatian forestry is making initial, modest steps in this field, there is no reason that forest owners in Gorski Kotar should not be included in this European trend. They have at their disposal about 3,000,000 m3 of growing stock, the annual increment of 80,000 m3, and the prescribed annual yield of about 40,000 m3, of which 40 % or 16,000 m3 is wood of thinner dimensions suitable for energy. At present, the major portion of this wood remains in the forest and perishes. This alone provides sufficient motive for the owners to pool forces, fight for their place on the market and join the chain of bioenergy producers for both the domestic and foreign markets

Silvicultural Treatments as a Method of Increasing the Value of Private Forests in Gorski Kotar

U radu su izneseni podaci o privatnim šumama Gorskog kotara koje zauzimaju 22 % od ukupne površine šuma i šumskih zemljišta. Izneseni su temeljni stanišni podaci i podaci o šumskim zajednicama u kojima se one razvijaju, kao i strukturni pokazatelji koji daju realnu sliku njihovog današnjeg stanja. Iako su ove šume, za razliku od ostalih privatnih šuma kod nas, već 30 godina uređene, one još uvijek pokazuju sve slabosti koje su uočljive i u ostalim privatnim šumama (usitnjenost, mala drvna zaliha i dr.). Zbog toga valja istaći da je velika pogreška danas svrstavati ove šume u raznodobne, jer su one u stvarnosti 60 % visoke regularne, 13 % panjače, a 27 % preborne šume. Opisani su uzgojni zahvati i drugi radovi koje u njima treba provoditi, kako bi im se povećala gospodarska i općekorisna vrijednost. Izneseni su podaci o strukturnim pokazateljima tih šuma na površini cijelog Gorskog kotara, koji ustvari na najbolji način ocrtavaju njihovo današnje stanje, posebno glede gospodarske i općekorisne vrijednosti. Opisani su zahvati njege i obnove koje treba provoditi u prebornim šumama putem prebornih sječa, kao i zahvati njege i obnove u regularnim šumama visokog i niskog uzgojnog oblika. Preporučeni su radovi njega i popunjavanje s plemenitim vrstama bjelogorice i crnogorice onih površina na kojima se danas događa prirodna sukcesija pionirskih vrsta drveća. Preporučene su i opisane one vrste drveća koje su prikladne za podizanje kultura plemenitih, brzorastućih i tržišno vrijednih vrsta bjelogorice i crnogorice na napuštenim pašnjačkim i drugim površinama. Posebno je istaknuta važnost organizacije radova na pridobivanju i plasiranju na tržište drva za bioenergiju nakon izvedenih zahvata njege, podizanja i obnove šuma.Privately owned forests in Croatia cover an area of 581,770 ha, which is 22 % of the total area of forests and forestland in the Republic of Croatia. The total growing stock in private forests in Croatia amounts to 78 301 000 m3, or 20 % of the overall growing stock of the entire forest management area. The average growing stock is 163 m3/ha and the increment is 4.4 m3/ha or 2.7 %. Privately owned forests in the area managed by Delnice Forest Administration extend over 22,380 ha. These forests are presently classified into uneven-aged forests, which is not conducive to their future management. Bearing in mind their condition regarding the silvicultural form, biological properties and ecological requirements of the tree species participating in their formation, the management of these forests should follow the methods applied to forests of high silvicultural form or seed forests, which are regular and selection forests, and to coppices. Forests of high silvicultural form are regular or even-aged seed forests covering an area of 13,264 ha, while selection seed forests cover an area of 6,085 ha. Regular coppice forests are found over an area of 3,031 ha. Placing these different forest forms into a uniform uneven-aged class prevents, among other things, the application of those necessary silvicultural operations which are aimed at attaining better stability, productivity and sustainability, or sustainable development. Based on the above structural indicators, especially the growing stock and increment of these forests, we may conclude that the current condition of private forests in this area is equally bad and worrying as that of other private forests in Croatia. Such a situation may be attributed to a number of factors, such as, for example, the inexpert application of silvicultural treatments, the disintegration of rural environments, property fragmentation, the owners’ social status, the insecurity of private ownership, the length of the production cycle, insufficient control and sanctioning, and finally, the disobeyance of legal regulations. Some objective reasons for which these forests are difficult to manage are: – Fragmentation of property (the average size of a plot is preceded by two zeros). Unsolved ownership-legal relationships, as well as an unstimulating, slow and expensive system of solving ownership problems, – Disproportion between the cadastre of cultures and the real condition in the field, and the disproportion between the cadastre and the land registry, – Management at the level of cadastre units prevents the application of more complex management with forest resources, – Prejudices of forest owners towards pooling resources (Cooperatives) due to negative experiences from the recent past, – Movement of the younger, more vital part of the population from rural into urban areas. Forest owners and forest owners’ associations should direct their activities concerned with increasing forest quality toward the following fields, treatments and activities: – Tending and regeneration treatments in selection forests with selection cuts. – Tending and regeneration treatments in regular high forests and coppices. – Tending and restocking those areas subject to natural succession of pioneer species with valuable broadleaved and coniferous species. – Establishing cultures of valuable, fast-growing and marketable broadleaved and coniferous species over abandoned grasslands and other areas. – Organizing timber harvesting and marketing, as well as utilization of timber for bioenergy after the forests have been tended, established and regenerated. Selection management is the most suitable method for fir forests or for those forests in which the fir is the dominant species, such as, for example, mixed forests of fir and beech, fir, beech and spruce, and fir and spruce. The management goals in a selection forest are accomplished by selecting and marking the trees to be cut. These management goals are: raise mixed selection stands which will ensure good quality increment, stand stability and plentiful natural new growth; use the productive site capacity to the maximum; and achieve the highest production values. Felling operations in a selection forest achieve multiple goals of tending and regeneration, forming the selection structure, utilizing forests and maintaining their hygiene. There are two groups of silvicultural procedures; tending of the young generation – young growth and young forest, and selection, which includes thinning and harvesting mature trees. All the procedures in a selection forest are temporally and spatially concentrated, thus creating an indelible whole. If any of the above activities is omitted, the structure of the selection forest will be disrupted and its increment, regeneration and stability will be affected. Tree marking in a selection forest should always take account of the goals for which this activity is undertaken. These goals are permanent regeneration, stand tending, continuous maintenance of the selection structure, stand utilization and maintenance of the sanitary-hygienic function. In a normal selection forest with normal growing stock, a 10-year annual increment is cut. Under normal circumstances, this is 25 % of the total growing stock in the stand. If the growing stock is higher than normal, cutting intensity should not exceed 30 %. If it is lower, cutting intensity may be reduced to 15 %. This is borderline intensity which should not be exceeded. This means that cutting should be postponed until another cutting cycle is over, in this case another 10 years. Higher or lower intensities could endanger the selection structure, i.e. the increment, regeneration and stability of the selection stand. Inappropriately applied intensities cannot maintain a selection stand in the optimal structural conditions which will ensure maximal production and optimal regeneration. Regrettably, this is one of the most serious current problems in selection management and selection forests. Beech and spruce stands which have officially been classified as uneven-aged stands and which have not been managed selectively but with selection cuts show a negative developmental trend. This kind of management results in decreased growing stock, absence of natural regeneration, reduced tree quality and lower increment. In such stands management based on regular principles should be organized over small areas (each structural unit – special silvicultural treatment). Silvicultural treatments are spatially divided over small areas. In other words, each structural unit represents a special part of the stand which requires a special silvicultural treatment. They are spatially separated but temporally concentrated. Management with shelterwood cuts in small areas with a longer regeneration period achieves biological diversity of beech and spruce forests. This type of regeneration enables, over a longer time period, a good yield of seeds of the principal and other tree species and the survival of their young generation. Regeneration in regular forests is generally done in 3 cuts (preparatory, seed and final) and less frequently in 4 or 5 cuts, where subsequent cuts are introduced. The preparatory cut is undertaken with 20 % intensity and the seed cut with 50 % intensity in a good seed year. The remaining wood volume is cut as needed, either with one or two subsequent cuts or, more frequently, with one final cut. Regular forests are tended throughout the life cycle of the stand, that is, until the shelterwood cuts are applied. Tending consists of the following stages: tending of the young growth after the final cut, cleaning in the developmental stage of the young growth and saplings, and tending with thinning. Tending of the young growth after the final cut is usually done once only, while cleaning or negative selection is done once or twice until the moment the stand reaches its maximal height increment. At this stage future trees are identified, which in beech and spruce forests takes place around the age of 30. At this age stands may be tended with thinning. Coppices of beech, pubescent oak and other hard broadleaves are regenerated with shelterwood cuts. The goal is to convert a coppice into the forest of high silvicultural form or seed forest. Regenerating a coppice with clearcutting and planting conifer species is a serious mistake. Conifers may be planted in degraded forest soils which have lost the properties that provide the parent climatogenic stand with optimal conditions for growth and development. Coppices should be tended throughout the rotation period. The tending stages in a coppice include reducing the number of poor quality and superfluous shoots on the stump, tending coppices with cleaning or negative selection, and tending coppices with thinning or positive selection. In the current economic and social conditions in Croatia arable areas are systematically being reduced and the size of abandoned agricultural land is increasing. These areas are subjected to the spontaneous expansion of less valuable tree species and shrubs, classified as pioneer species. Being the first to occur, they are spontaneously followed by transitional species. The 100-year-long process ends with the occurrence of principal or climatogenic species (fir, beech, oaks). Pioneer and transitional tree species gradually convert degraded forest soil into forest soil suitable for climatogenic or principal species. The basic tree species that bear the characteristics of pioneer species are those from the genera of alders, willows, poplars, birches and others. Domestic, autochthonous tree species from other genera, with the exception of the genera of oaks, beech and fir, belong to transitional tree species. Together with pioneer species, they gradually colonize abandoned agricultural and other lands. Forest cultures should be established on abandoned agricultural areas in order to increase their market and non-market values. These cultures are established by planting broadleaved species from the genera of wild cherry, pear, apple, as well as maple, ash, lime, whitebeam, rowan, service tree, wild service tree, bird cherry, walnut, and others. Coniferous species to be planted include species from the genera of spruces, larches and pines. The choice of the tree species depends on the site conditions that prevail in the treated area, where the soil and the climate have a decisive role. The pioneer, transitional or secondary tree species have an important role in the structure of all Croatian natural forests. They are particularly suitable for the establishment of cultures which supply good quality and valuable timber. Timber of all these species is applied in mechanical and chemical processing industries, and in energy production. The establishment of energy forests with short rotations and small planting distances will gain increasing importance in Croatian forestry. Due to the present energy crisis, the share of timber in the energy balance of the most developed European countries is constantly growing. Timber from forests has been accepted everywhere in Europe as an important and renewable source of bioenergy. Although the Croatian forestry is making initial, modest steps in this field, there is no reason that forest owners in Gorski Kotar should not be included in this European trend. They have at their disposal about 3,000,000 m3 of growing stock, the annual increment of 80,000 m3, and the prescribed annual yield of about 40,000 m3, of which 40 % or 16,000 m3 is wood of thinner dimensions suitable for energy. At present, the major portion of this wood remains in the forest and perishes. This alone provides sufficient motive for the owners to pool forces, fight for their place on the market and join the chain of bioenergy producers for both the domestic and foreign markets

Laparoscopic technique as a method of choice in the treatment of non-parasitic splenic cysts

Introduction/Objective Splenic cysts are a rare clinical entity. In their origin, they may be parasitic or non-parasitic. They are classified as either primary (true) or secondary cysts (pseudocysts), depending on the presence or absence of an epithelial lining of the lumen. Methods Using a retrospective case study, we included 29 patients undergoing laparoscopic surgery due to splenic cysts. The patients were treated within the 2007-2017 period at the Clinic for Digestive Surgery, the Clinical Center of Serbia. We analyzed pre-operative, intra-operative and post-operative characteristics of laparoscopic technique in treating non-parasitic splenic cysts. Results The group of 29 patients treated with laparoscopic technique surgery due to the previously diagnosed splenic cyst, consisted of 12 (41.4%) men and 17 (58.6%) women. The average age of patients undergoing surgery was 38.86 ± 10.4 years (22-62). Based on the histopathological findings, there were eight epithelial cysts and 21 pseudocysts of the spleen. The maximal diameter of the splenic cyst, measured pre-operatively, was 10.09 ± 2.51 cm on average. The average operative time was 35 minutes, and the intra-operative bleeding amount was 11.48 ± 3.78 ml. None of the intra-operative complications, injury to the spleen or other organs of the abdomen, conversions to open surgery or reintervention were recorded. Conclusion Laparoscopic fenestration with excision of the part of the spleen cyst wall (marsupialization) represents an effective and definitive treatment for this disease. It is an alternative to splenectomy, along with other well-known benefits ensured by the spleen preservation. Low probability of occurrence of intra-operative and post-operative complications, as well as minimal trauma of tissue, results in a shorter postoperative stay, rapid recovery, and better quality of life. © 2019, Serbia Medical Society. All rights reserved

Seed production of some more important tree and shub species in the Croatian Mediterranean region

Porijeklo i kakvoća sjemena su značajan čimbenik kvalitete buduće sastojine. U ovom poglavlju o sjemenarstvu važnijih vrsta drveća i grmlja izneseni su podatci o svojstvima sjemena za 30 vrsta drveća, poludrveća i grmlja koje su zanimljive za šumsko rasadničarstvo na području hrvatskog Sredozemlja. Za svaku vrstu navedeni su podatci o cvatnji i dozrijevanju, sakupljanju i čuvanju plodova, klijavosti sjemena i drugim svojstvima koja su posebna za sjeme pojedinih vrsta drveća i grmlj

Available Agricultural Areas and the Use of Forests for Biofuel Production in Croatia

Zbog ekonomskih i ekoloških razloga nastavlja se unapređivanje proizvodnje i širenje korištenja biogoriva u svijetu i Europskoj uniji (EU). Zbog ograničene površine za proizvodnju biomase, biogoriva bi mogla zamijeniti fosilna goriva samo u jednom dijelu. Po EU do 2030. godine, uz razvoj ostalih obnovljivih izvora energije, biogoriva bi u Hrvatskoj zamijenila naftu u prometu za 25 %, što iznosi 452.325 t. Danas poljoprivredne površine zauzimaju 2,955.728 ha. Od toga su 1,074.159 ha pogodne, 1,074.510 ha ograničene, a 806,328 ha trajno nepogodne površine za poljoprivrednu proizvodnju. Potencijali obradivih površina iznose 2,150.000 ha, a obrađuje se svega 1,092.000 ha. Danas je moguće u poljoprivredi iz biomase (organskih ostataka i otpadaka) dobivati 673.530 t/godišnje biogoriva, a da se ne ugrozi stalnost prirodnog obnavljanja organske tvari u tlu. Hrvatska raspolaže s 2,688.687 ha šuma i šumskog zemljišta, gdje godišnje prirašćuje 10,526.000 m3, a sječivi etat je 6,564.000 m3. Od toga se za industrijsko drvo i ogrjev iskoristi 60 % ili 3,938.400 m3, a ostatak od 40 % ili 2,625.000 m3 ostaje kao otpad u šumi. Ako bi se otpad sveo na normalnu količinu od 15 % ili 984.600 m3 onda bi za bioenergiju ostalo 45 % ili 2,953.800 m3. Ta količina drva za bioenergiju dovoljna je za proizvodnju 600.000 t biogoriva u ekvivalentnim količinama nafte. Koristeći postojeće zalihe u poljoprivrtedi i šumarstvu danas se može proizvesti 1,273.530 t/godišnje biogoriva. Taj iznos premašuje za 2,8 puta potrebnu količinu, koju će Hrvatska, trebati koristiti 2030. umjesto fosilnih goriva. Hrvatska raspolaže s potrebnim površinama u poljoprivredi, kao i s kvalitetnim šumama u svrhu proizvodnje hrane i biogoriva po postojećim direktivima EU.The production and expansion of biofuel use in the world and the EU has been prompted by economic and ecological reasons. Fossil fuel reserves (oil and gas) are being depleted and becoming more expensive. At the same time the Kyoto Protocol stipulates the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with the goal of mitigating climatic phenomena which could cause unforeseen consequences. Land for biomass production is limited: therefore, biofuels could, following the EU strategy, replace fossil fuels only in one part. In addition to developing other renewable energies (hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy), the EU committed itself to replace traffic oil with biofuels by 25 % by the year 2030. As Croatia is an EU membership candidate, the first thing it is required to do is to fulfill the obligation of achieving a 5.75 % proportion of biofuels (104,034 tons), held by each member state, by the year 2010. This is followed by the fulfillment of the commitment for the year 2020 (180,930 tons) and by the year 2030 (452,325 tons). Of the total continental land area of Croatia (5,662,031 ha), agricultural land covers 2,955,728 ha or 52.2 %. In Croatia, 55.9% or 1,202,000 ha of a total of 2,150,000 ha of potentially arable land are cultivated. If pastures are excluded, then arable land amounts to only 50.8 % or 1,092,000 ha. With the application of more or less intensive ameliorative measures, agrocultures could be cultivated for food production and partially for biofuel production over as many as 947.080 ha of available land in Croatia. Permanently unsuitable land for agricultural production in Croatia amounts to 806,328 ha. This land could be used for the establishment of forest cultures where timber for industry and bioenergy could be produced. The current conditions in Croatia give us reason to believe that there are good possibilities for biodiesel production from rape seed (especially rape oil) using first generation technologies, and biodiesel from lignocellulose biomass and its residues in agriculture and forestry with the application of second generation technologies. Moreover, a large number of cattle farms in Croatia produce large quantities of organic residue (especially animal manure) which could be usefully converted into biogas for both economic and ecological reasons. The quantity of biomass from agrocultures amounts to 1,239,550 (t) annually, which is only 30 % of their value. The remaining 70 % of the biomass should be left on agricultural land to allow organic matter in the soil to regenerate naturally. The total equivalent value in crude oil from agricultural areas is 428,992 t/annually. Apart from biomass from agricultures, significant biomass quantities also exist in cattle breeding. Animal manure and organic residue from cattle are used for biofuel production – biogas. Annual quantities of overall animal manure in Croatia amount to 381,480,000 t and represent 25 % of the existing annual quantities. This biomass quantity (organic residue in husbandry) may provide a total of 244,538 t of annual equivalent values of crude oil. Present agricultural production may provide 673,530 t/annually of biofuels from biomass (organic residue and waste) in the equivalent value of crude oil without jeopardizing permanent natural regeneration of organic matter in the soil. Croatia possesses 2,688,687 ha of forests and forestland with 397,963,000 m3 of growing stock which increments annually by 10,526,000 m3. The annual cut or the prescribed cut is 6,564,000 m3 of gross volume. Of the total annual cut, about 40 % or 2,625,600 of timber is used for processing, 20 % or 1,312,800 m3 for of fuelwood for energy and the remaining 40 % or 2,625,000 m3 is left in the forest as waste. Of this residue, 62.5 % or 1,641,000 m3 could be used for bioenergy production, while 37 % or 984,000 m3 would remain in the forest as waste. If this amount suitable for bioenergy is added to the quantity of 1,312,800 m3 of fuelwood, the total quantity of energy wood that could already be placed on the energy market amounts to 2,953,800 m3, which is 45 % of the total annual cut. This quantity could provide 600,000 t/annually of biofuel in the equivalent value of crude oil. Therefore, Croatia can produce an annual biofuel quantity of 1,273,539 t from the existing reserves in agriculture and forestry. This amount is 2.8 times higher than the quantity (452,325 t) which Croatia is obliged to use in traffic instead of fossil fuels by 2030 (the EU Directive of 2003). Taking into account realistic potential possibilities of biofuel production in agriculture and forestry, we believe that a strategy on biomass use and biofuel production should be developed in Croatia with the goal of achieving economic and ecological bene

Seed production of some more important tree and shub species in the Croatian Mediterranean region

Porijeklo i kakvoća sjemena su značajan čimbenik kvalitete buduće sastojine. U ovom poglavlju o sjemenarstvu važnijih vrsta drveća i grmlja izneseni su podatci o svojstvima sjemena za 30 vrsta drveća, poludrveća i grmlja koje su zanimljive za šumsko rasadničarstvo na području hrvatskog Sredozemlja. Za svaku vrstu navedeni su podatci o cvatnji i dozrijevanju, sakupljanju i čuvanju plodova, klijavosti sjemena i drugim svojstvima koja su posebna za sjeme pojedinih vrsta drveća i grmlj

Available Agricultural Areas and the Use of Forests for Biofuel Production in Croatia

Zbog ekonomskih i ekoloških razloga nastavlja se unapređivanje proizvodnje i širenje korištenja biogoriva u svijetu i Europskoj uniji (EU). Zbog ograničene površine za proizvodnju biomase, biogoriva bi mogla zamijeniti fosilna goriva samo u jednom dijelu. Po EU do 2030. godine, uz razvoj ostalih obnovljivih izvora energije, biogoriva bi u Hrvatskoj zamijenila naftu u prometu za 25 %, što iznosi 452.325 t. Danas poljoprivredne površine zauzimaju 2,955.728 ha. Od toga su 1,074.159 ha pogodne, 1,074.510 ha ograničene, a 806,328 ha trajno nepogodne površine za poljoprivrednu proizvodnju. Potencijali obradivih površina iznose 2,150.000 ha, a obrađuje se svega 1,092.000 ha. Danas je moguće u poljoprivredi iz biomase (organskih ostataka i otpadaka) dobivati 673.530 t/godišnje biogoriva, a da se ne ugrozi stalnost prirodnog obnavljanja organske tvari u tlu. Hrvatska raspolaže s 2,688.687 ha šuma i šumskog zemljišta, gdje godišnje prirašćuje 10,526.000 m3, a sječivi etat je 6,564.000 m3. Od toga se za industrijsko drvo i ogrjev iskoristi 60 % ili 3,938.400 m3, a ostatak od 40 % ili 2,625.000 m3 ostaje kao otpad u šumi. Ako bi se otpad sveo na normalnu količinu od 15 % ili 984.600 m3 onda bi za bioenergiju ostalo 45 % ili 2,953.800 m3. Ta količina drva za bioenergiju dovoljna je za proizvodnju 600.000 t biogoriva u ekvivalentnim količinama nafte. Koristeći postojeće zalihe u poljoprivrtedi i šumarstvu danas se može proizvesti 1,273.530 t/godišnje biogoriva. Taj iznos premašuje za 2,8 puta potrebnu količinu, koju će Hrvatska, trebati koristiti 2030. umjesto fosilnih goriva. Hrvatska raspolaže s potrebnim površinama u poljoprivredi, kao i s kvalitetnim šumama u svrhu proizvodnje hrane i biogoriva po postojećim direktivima EU.The production and expansion of biofuel use in the world and the EU has been prompted by economic and ecological reasons. Fossil fuel reserves (oil and gas) are being depleted and becoming more expensive. At the same time the Kyoto Protocol stipulates the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions with the goal of mitigating climatic phenomena which could cause unforeseen consequences. Land for biomass production is limited: therefore, biofuels could, following the EU strategy, replace fossil fuels only in one part. In addition to developing other renewable energies (hydro energy, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy), the EU committed itself to replace traffic oil with biofuels by 25 % by the year 2030. As Croatia is an EU membership candidate, the first thing it is required to do is to fulfill the obligation of achieving a 5.75 % proportion of biofuels (104,034 tons), held by each member state, by the year 2010. This is followed by the fulfillment of the commitment for the year 2020 (180,930 tons) and by the year 2030 (452,325 tons). Of the total continental land area of Croatia (5,662,031 ha), agricultural land covers 2,955,728 ha or 52.2 %. In Croatia, 55.9% or 1,202,000 ha of a total of 2,150,000 ha of potentially arable land are cultivated. If pastures are excluded, then arable land amounts to only 50.8 % or 1,092,000 ha. With the application of more or less intensive ameliorative measures, agrocultures could be cultivated for food production and partially for biofuel production over as many as 947.080 ha of available land in Croatia. Permanently unsuitable land for agricultural production in Croatia amounts to 806,328 ha. This land could be used for the establishment of forest cultures where timber for industry and bioenergy could be produced. The current conditions in Croatia give us reason to believe that there are good possibilities for biodiesel production from rape seed (especially rape oil) using first generation technologies, and biodiesel from lignocellulose biomass and its residues in agriculture and forestry with the application of second generation technologies. Moreover, a large number of cattle farms in Croatia produce large quantities of organic residue (especially animal manure) which could be usefully converted into biogas for both economic and ecological reasons. The quantity of biomass from agrocultures amounts to 1,239,550 (t) annually, which is only 30 % of their value. The remaining 70 % of the biomass should be left on agricultural land to allow organic matter in the soil to regenerate naturally. The total equivalent value in crude oil from agricultural areas is 428,992 t/annually. Apart from biomass from agricultures, significant biomass quantities also exist in cattle breeding. Animal manure and organic residue from cattle are used for biofuel production – biogas. Annual quantities of overall animal manure in Croatia amount to 381,480,000 t and represent 25 % of the existing annual quantities. This biomass quantity (organic residue in husbandry) may provide a total of 244,538 t of annual equivalent values of crude oil. Present agricultural production may provide 673,530 t/annually of biofuels from biomass (organic residue and waste) in the equivalent value of crude oil without jeopardizing permanent natural regeneration of organic matter in the soil. Croatia possesses 2,688,687 ha of forests and forestland with 397,963,000 m3 of growing stock which increments annually by 10,526,000 m3. The annual cut or the prescribed cut is 6,564,000 m3 of gross volume. Of the total annual cut, about 40 % or 2,625,600 of timber is used for processing, 20 % or 1,312,800 m3 for of fuelwood for energy and the remaining 40 % or 2,625,000 m3 is left in the forest as waste. Of this residue, 62.5 % or 1,641,000 m3 could be used for bioenergy production, while 37 % or 984,000 m3 would remain in the forest as waste. If this amount suitable for bioenergy is added to the quantity of 1,312,800 m3 of fuelwood, the total quantity of energy wood that could already be placed on the energy market amounts to 2,953,800 m3, which is 45 % of the total annual cut. This quantity could provide 600,000 t/annually of biofuel in the equivalent value of crude oil. Therefore, Croatia can produce an annual biofuel quantity of 1,273,539 t from the existing reserves in agriculture and forestry. This amount is 2.8 times higher than the quantity (452,325 t) which Croatia is obliged to use in traffic instead of fossil fuels by 2030 (the EU Directive of 2003). Taking into account realistic potential possibilities of biofuel production in agriculture and forestry, we believe that a strategy on biomass use and biofuel production should be developed in Croatia with the goal of achieving economic and ecological bene