Perceptions of extension officers regarding public extension services: a case study of horticultural extension officers in the Hhohho Region, Eswatini

The role of public extension in the sustainability and development of rural smallholder farmers is central to rural development. Although the benefits of public extension cannot be quantified to justify its funding, it remains pivotal to the success of poor smallholders with low literacy levels. The reports on agricultural extension in Eswatini paints blink picture on public extension. Data was collected on a census of 13 horticultural EOs alongside a snowballed sample of 82 farmers across the Hhohho region. The senior extension staff participated in a group discussion. The EOs were predominantly young males and were not trained in extension service delivery. The farmers were predominantly older females and had low levels of education. The EOs perceived themselves as good in horticultural issues and average in farmer management and agribusiness issues. They faced a number of challenges including work overload, being under-staffed, poorly resourced, inactive farmer groups, inconsistency of farmers’ participation, and poor personal welfare. Institutionalising smallholder farmers in the community development plans (CDPs) and organising them into formal groups like cooperatives was identified as the first step towards improving public extension. This should be supported by training of EOs on Extension and business management. This would improve the efficiency of offering extension services and other benefits of collective operations. This would also reduce the EOs required per RDA and will enable the government to improve the welfare and operations of EOs.Keywords: Public extension services, smallholder farmers, extension officers, perception

Effect of Intra-row Spacing on Growth and Yield of Irish Potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Mondial) Grown in a Sub-tropical Environment of Eswatini

Irish potato yields vary widely, usually showing a declining trend, due to differences in in-row spacing used, as well as poor varietal selection for specific locations. In this study the growth and yield responses to different intra-row spacing on Irish potato cultivar Mondial was evaluated. The treatments consisted of four intra-rows spacing namely: 15 cm, 30 cm, 45 cm and 60 cm. Inter-row spacing was maintained at 90 cm for all treatments. Treatments were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and replicated four times. Measurements were taken on plant height, number of potato tubers per plant, leaf length and width and fresh weight of potato tubers. In-row spacing were significantly different at P <0.05 with 15 cm producing the highest mean height (26.90 cm) at 14 weeks after planting. The number of stems per plant were not significantly influenced (P>0.05) by the intra- row spacing. The highest number of main stems (6) was recorded at 45 cm spacing and the lowest (5) at 15 cm spacing. The number of tubers per plant were not significantly different (P>0.05) in all the intra row spacing, and 15 cm intra row spacing had the highest number of tubers. There were significant (P<0.05) differences among the different intra row spacing for yield per plot. The highest yield (6.71 t/ha) was at the 60 cm spacing and the lowest (4.87 t/ha) was at the 15cm spacing in terms of size and marketability of the tubers. Based on the findings of the study it can be concluded that intra row spacing can be chosen according to the farmer’s desired size of tuber: that is to say as the intra row spacing decreases there is also a decrease in the size of tuber produced and vice versa. These results have shown that Irish potato (cultivar Mondial) grown at the 60 cm x 90 cm intra row spacing gave the best yield results and economic yields

Effects of Kraal Manure ApplicationRates on Growth and Yield of Wild Okra (Corchorus olitorius L) in a Sub-tropical Environment

Abstract: Wild okra (Corchorus olitorius L) is an important indigenous vegetable in Swaziland. Although the crop is a popular vegetable among rural communities, not much has been done to produce organic fertilizer application recommendations for its production. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of kraal manure application rates on growth and yield of wild okra. Kraal manure was applied at varying rates of 20, 40 and 60 tons/ha in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) where 2.3.2 (22) an inorganic fertilizer was used as a control, and was applied at the rate of 150 kg/ha. For every increase in the application level of kraal manure there were significant (p<0.05) increases in all the growth parameters that were measured. There were also significant (p<0.05) differences of fresh mass and dry mass yield of wild okra. There was an increase in fresh and dry mass yield with every increase in application level of kraal manure while the least fresh and dry mass was recorded in plants provided with 2.3.2 (22). Kraal manure applied at 60 ton/ha gave the highest yield of wild okra under the conditions of this experiment

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT GROWING MEDIA ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WHITE ASTERS (SYMPHYOTRICHUM ERICOIDES L.)

All good potting media should meet the needs of plant’s root for air, water, nutrients and support. Satisfactory growth of annual transplants and nursery crops can occur in soilless media made up of a wide range of components. White asters are important flowering plants usually grown in gardens, as potted plants and bedding plants. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of different growing media on the growth and development of white asters. The different treatments combinations used included: garden soil; soil + sand (1:1); sand + kraal manure (1:1); soil + sand + compost (1:1:1), and soil + sand + shredded bark (1:1:3). The treatments were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). White asters grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture had the highest number of leaves (32.0), plant height (23.2 cm), leaf area (30.9 cm2), leaf area index (0.35), number of flowers (18.8), flower diameter (4.8 cm), shoot fresh mass (27.3 g), shoot dry mass (5.8 g), root fresh mass (3.6 g), root dry mass (0.6 g), and root length (13.2 cm). Plants grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture had twice the shoot dry mass of those grown in soil/sand/ compost medium. The roots dry mass of plants grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture was more than double that of plants grown in soil/sand/compost mixture. Plants grown in soil/sand/compost mixture had the lowest number of leaves (17.3), plant height (18.5 cm), leaf area (17.2 cm), leaf area index (0.19), number of flowers (11.5), flower diameter (4.2 cm), shoot fresh mass (13.6 g), shoot dry mass (2.9 g), root fresh mass (1.3 g), and root dry mass (0.3 g). Therefore, it can be recommended that farmers or florists who want to grow white asters may use soil/sand/shredded bark mixture for optimum growth and development of the plants

THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT GROWING MEDIA ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF WHITE ASTERS (SYMPHYOTRICHUM ERICOIDES L.)

All good potting media should meet the needs of plant’s root for air, water, nutrients and support. Satisfactory growth of annual transplants and nursery crops can occur in soilless media made up of a wide range of components. White asters are important flowering plants usually grown in gardens, as potted plants and bedding plants. The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of different growing media on the growth and development of white asters. The different treatments combinations used included: garden soil; soil + sand (1:1); sand + kraal manure (1:1); soil + sand + compost (1:1:1), and soil + sand + shredded bark (1:1:3). The treatments were arranged in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD). White asters grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture had the highest number of leaves (32.0), plant height (23.2 cm), leaf area (30.9 cm2), leaf area index (0.35), number of flowers (18.8), flower diameter (4.8 cm), shoot fresh mass (27.3 g), shoot dry mass (5.8 g), root fresh mass (3.6 g), root dry mass (0.6 g), and root length (13.2 cm). Plants grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture had twice the shoot dry mass of those grown in soil/sand/ compost medium. The roots dry mass of plants grown in soil/sand/shredded bark mixture was more than double that of plants grown in soil/sand/compost mixture. Plants grown in soil/sand/compost mixture had the lowest number of leaves (17.3), plant height (18.5 cm), leaf area (17.2 cm), leaf area index (0.19), number of flowers (11.5), flower diameter (4.2 cm), shoot fresh mass (13.6 g), shoot dry mass (2.9 g), root fresh mass (1.3 g), and root dry mass (0.3 g). Therefore, it can be recommended that farmers or florists who want to grow white asters may use soil/sand/shredded bark mixture for optimum growth and development of the plants

EFFECTS OF GIBBERELLIC ACID (GA3) ON THE GROWTH, FRUIT YIELD AND QUALITY OF STRAWBERRY (FRAGARIA × ANANASSA) IN A SUB-TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT

Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) is a widely adapted small fruit grown from the low-altitude of tropics and subtropics to high-altitude in cold continental areas. Despite its nutritional benefits, little research has been undertaken to facilitate its wide scale production in sub-tropical environments. This experiment was laid down in a Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications. Its aim was to determine the effects of different concentrations (0, 25, 50, 75 ppm) of gibberellic acid (GA3) on growth, yield and quality of strawberry. The results revealed that plants treated with 75 ppm GA significantly (P < 0.05) had more growth in number of leaves, petiole length, plant spread and leaf area. Less leaf nitrogen (1.78%) and chlorophyll content index (25.01) were observed in GA treated plants with 75 ppm. Control plants sprayed with distilled water took more days to produce first flower (62.25 days) and fruit (69 days) as compared to GA treated plants which also produced fruits with more weight and yield which increased with increasing concentrations. Titratable acidity of the fruits was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in plants treated with 75 ppm GA3 and had higher vitamin C (71.88 mg/g) and total soluble solids (6.90 Brix). Results from GA treated plants at 50 ppm were the best in this experiment but more research needs to be done in the open field as this one was done in a lathhouse with plants grown in containers; differences might be observed in the field and there is need for more research on strawberry and bioregulators in the different ecological areas of Swaziland

FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A BOX TYPE SOLAR COOKER

A model box solar cooker (BSC) was fabricated using locally available low cost materials. The BSC was compared with a renowned reflector solar cooker (CooKit) for thermal performance in heating water. The BSC and the CooKit constituted the experimental treatments in this study and each solar cooker type was replicated three times in a completely randomized design (CRD). The cookers were placed in a sunny spot away from buildings and trees to avoid shading. Six black plastic water bottles (800 ml) were filled with 700 ml of distilled water and placed in the centre of each cooker for energy generation monitoring. Each bottle had a hole drilled in the lid to accommodate an ordinary thermometer. The experiment was conducted on three selected days in January, February and March, 2014. Each trial run started at 10:00 hours and ended at 17:00 hours, with water temperature recorded every 10 minutes. The BSC recorded significantly (P < 0.05) higher peak water temperatures of 87C in January and 85.67C in February and these corresponded to mean energy gains of 0.17 MJ and 0.12 MJ, respectively, compared to 79.3C and 53.87C peak water temperatures (corresponding to 0.12 and 0.11MJ) recorded in the CooKit in the same months.. However, the mean cumulative energy generated by the CooKit (0.16 MJ) in March was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than 0.11 MJ gained in the BSC. These preliminary results have shown that the locally fabricated BSC has potential to provide adequate energy for pasteurising and possibly cooking various food products. Being a design based on local materials, it offers advantages of empowering local artisans and creating employment. It is recommended that further tests be conducted under varying weather conditions in order to identify points of possible design improvements before wide spread promotion

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT IRRIGATION REGIMES ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF CALATHEA (CALATHEA MAKOYANE L.)

Irrigation is becoming increasingly important in areas where frequent drought incidence and seasonal rainfall is inadequate for crop production. On the other hand, water resources are becoming increasingly limited and can no longer satisfy the continuously increasing demand for irrigation water. The aim of this investigation was to determine the optimal moisture depletion level for the production of good quality calathea plants. Treatments used in the experiment included 75, 50, 40, and 30% allowable water depletion (AWD).The control was (50% AWD). A Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) was used in this experiment with four replications. Irrigation the plants at 50% AWD resulted in the highest plant height (28.5 cm), leaf area (57.2 cm2) and number of leaves per plant (12.1) determined 12 weeks after potting (WAP). However, the highest root length (15.2 cm), shoot fresh mass (39.0 g), shoot dry mass (4.2 g), root fresh mass (19.4 g), and root dry mass (2.0 g), was obtained from plants irrigated at 75% AWD. The lowest plant height (24.7 cm), leaf area (49.0 cm2), root length (12.3 cm), shoot fresh mass (16.9 g), shoot dry mass (1.8 g), root fresh mass (7.6 g), and number of leaves (5.1) were recorded in plants irrigated at 30% AWD. Irrigating the plants at 30% AWD resulted in an almost 60% reduction in the number of leaves per plants as compared to irrigating at 50% AWD. An almost similar 60% reduction in root length, shoot fresh mass, shoot dry mass, and root fresh mass of calathea plants occurred when irrigation was reduced from 75 to 30% AWD. It was, therefore, recommended that farmers who are interested in growing calathea should irrigate them at 75% AWD to promote more vegetative growth

SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SCALE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF PROCESSED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES IN ZIMBABWE.

A study was conducted to investigate the constraints and prospects of small-scale production and marketing of processed fruits and vegetables in the eastern districts of Zimbabwe. A sample of 26 small-scale horticultural producers/ processors was randomly selected during the land reform exercise involving in-depth interviews to gain insight of the requirements for small-scale enterprises to effectively produce and market processed fruits and vegetables. The results showed that small-scale food enterprises were mainly engaged in the production of dried fruits, vegetables, and fruit jams. The growers are encountering technical, financial, infrastructural, institutional, social and information gaps as constraints. It was revealed that fruit and vegetable production declined sharply during the land reform transitional period. Food processing was hindered by lack of training, high prices of basic ingredients, lack of appropriate processing equipment and shortages of packaging material. Processors generally lacked marketing information and processing skills. From this study, it may be concluded that availability of appropriate processing equipment, processing skills, packaging material, and marketing information could improve financial returns to small-scale horticultural processors. It may be recommended that small scale fruit and vegetables processors require further training in their business and that banks and allied companies are urged to avail financial services to them