The petition movement asking for the immediate convocation of a national assembly in China early in the 20th century (2)

In this paper, I discuss the third stage of the petition movement asking for the immediate convocation of a National Assembly in China. After two previous petition movements had failed, the third movement adopted following measures. 1. indirect petition to the preparatory National Assembly(資政院). 2. direct petition to the head of Ch'ing government(清朝). 3. indirect petition to the provincial governors(督撫). The most important measure of the third stage of the petition movement was 3 that had been by more eleven provinces (省) with many people participated. Thus the third stage became a nation-wide movement. Next I discuss the third stage of the movement in the Zhili Province (直隷省). That movement became so popular that a lot of signatures and contributions were collected. And in that movement, the delegates sent to Peking(北京) to petition and the leaders of the association of comrades (請願同志会) were elected by vote. In addition, when conferences were held, "speeches" played an important role. So I understand in the Zhili Province movement democracy bega to prevail. The third stage of the movement won the promise to convene a parliament in 1913 (instead of 1917). But the government in the decree of 4 November ordered the petitioners to disband. As a result, the petition movement separated two groups. One was satisfied with the result and stopped their activities, another was dissatisfied with the result and refused to disband

The petition movement asking for the immediate convocation of a nationa assembly in China early in the 20th century (1)

We know that a large scale petition movement asking for the immediate convocation of a National Assembly occurred in China. I have been interested in this movement, especially what kind of the movement it was, and how democratic it was. In this paper, I have tried to discuss the following two points. 1)The petition movement had four stages in its development. In this paper I deal with the first two stages and in the next paper I will discuss the remaining two stages. The first stage of the petition movement was promoted by the delegates of each Provincial Assembly(諮議局). At the second stage, many people, namely, Circles of "gentry, commerce, educational"(「紳・商・学」界), Eight Banners(八旗) and Chinese overseas(華僑) also joined the movement. At that stage many people organized the Association of Comrades Requesting the Immediate Opening of Parliament(請願速開国会同志会) which supported the opinion movement. The Society changed its name three times, but it finally became a nationwide organization. The headquarters of the Society moved from Shanghai(上海) to Beijing(北京). Most of the Provinces had its branch. (2)In the movemenet, we had seen many democratic factors. The followings are its two examples. a. The members of various associations held meetings and elected leaders of the association and petition delegates. b. While these associations grew bigger, their members tried to collect signatures for petition, they held meetings, made speeches and enlightened the necessity of constitutional government, distributing pamphlets and handbills in the simple languae

Compton scattering in the Klein-Nishina Regime Revisited

In blazars such as 3C 279, GeV gamma-rays are thought to be produced by inverse Compton scattering of soft photons injected from external sources into the jet. Because of the large bulk Lorentz factor of the jet, the energy of soft photons is Doppler shifted in the comoving frame of the jet, and the scattering is likely to occur in the Klein-Nishina regime. Although the Klein-Nishina effects are well known, the properties of the electron and emission spectra have not been studied in detail in the environment of blazars. We solve the kinetic equation of electrons with the spatial escape term of the electrons to obtain the electron energy spectrum in the jet and calculated the observed emission spectrum. In calculations of the Compton losses in the Klein-Nishina regime, we use the discrete loss formalism to take into account the significant energy loss in a single scattering. Although the scattering cross section decreases because of the Klein-Nishina effects, ample gamma rays are emitted by inverse Compton scattering. When the injection spectrum of electrons obeys a power law, the electron spectrum does not follow a broken power law, as a result of the Klein-Nishina effects, and a large number of high-energy electrons remain in the emitting region.Comment: 10 pages, 9 figure

Synchrotron Blob Model of Infrared and X-ray Flares from Sagittarius A∗^*

Sagittarius A$^*$ in the Galactic center harbors a supermassive black hole and exhibits various active phenomena. Besides quiescent emission in radio and submillimeter radiation, flares in the near infrared (NIR) and X-ray bands are observed to occur frequently. We study a time-dependent model of the flares, assuming that the emission is from a blob ejected from the central object. Electrons obeying a power law with the exponential cutoff are assumed to be injected in the blob for a limited time interval. The flare data of 2007 April 4 were used to determine the values of model parameters. The spectral energy distribution of flare emission is explained by nonthermal synchrotron radiation in the NIR and X-ray bands. The model light curves suggest that electron acceleration is still underway during the rising phase of the flares. GeV gamma-rays are also emitted by synchrotron self-Compton scattering, although its luminosity is not strictly constrained by the current model. If the GeV emission is faint, the plasma blob is dominated by the magnetic energy density over the electron kinetic energy density. Observations in the GeV band will clarify the origin of the blob.Comment: 11 pages, 8 figures, 1 table. The title is slightly changed and references are updated. Minor corrections are also include

A Leptonic Model of Steady High-Energy Gamma-Ray Emission from Sgr A∗^*

Recent observations of Sgr A$^*$ by Fermi and HESS have detected steady gamma-ray emission in the GeV and TeV bands. We present a new model to explain the GeV gamma-ray emission by inverse Compton scattering by nonthermal electrons supplied by the NIR/X-ray flares of Sgr A$^*$. The escaping electrons from the flare regions accumulate in a region with a size of $\sim 10^{18}$ cm and magnetic fields of $\lesssim 10^{-4}$ G. Those electrons produce gamma-rays by inverse Compton scattering off soft photons emitted by stars and dust around the central black hole. By fitting the GeV spectrum, we find constraints on the magnetic field and the energy density of optical-UV radiation in the central 1 pc region around the supermassive black hole. While the GeV spectrum is well fitted by our model, the TeV $\gamma$-rays, whose spectral index is different from that of the GeV emission, may be from different sources such as pulsar wind nebulae.Comment: 11 pages, 5 figures, 2 tables. Accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journa

Electron Acceleration and Time Variability of High Energy Emission from Blazars

Blazars are known to emit a broad band emission from radio to gamma-rays with rapid time variations, particularly, in X- and gamma-rays. Synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton scattering are thought to play an important role in emission and the time variations are likely related to the acceleration of nonthermal electrons. As simultaneous multiwavelength observations with continuous time spans are recently available, some characteristics of electron acceleration are possibly inferred from the spectral changes of high energy emission. In order to make such inferences, we solve the time-dependent kinetic equations of electrons and photons simultaneously using a simple model for electron acceleration. We then show how the time variations of emission are dependent on electron acceleration. We also present a simple model for a flare in X-rays and TeV gamma-rays by temporarily changing the acceleration timescale. Our model will be used, in future, to analyze observed data in detail to obtain information on electron acceleration in blazars.Comment: 24 pages, 12 figures, accepted by the Astrophysical Journa

Synchrotron Self-Compton Model for PKS 2155-304

H.E.S.S. observed TeV blazar PKS 2155--304 in a strong flare state in 2006 July. The TeV flux varied on timescale as short as a few minutes, which sets strong constraints on the properties of the emission region. By use of the synchrotron self-Compton model, we found that models with the bulk Lorentz factor $\sim 100$, the size of the emission region $\sim 10^{15}$ cm, and magnetic field $\sim 0.1$ G explain the observed spectral energy distribution and the flare timescale $\sim$ a few minutes. This model with a large value of $\Gamma$ accounts for the emission spectrum not only in the TeV band but also in the X-ray band. The major cooling process of electrons/positrons in the jet is inverse Compton scattering off synchrotron photons. The energy content of the jet is highly dominated by particle kinetic energy over magnetic energy.Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures, 2 tables, to appear in the Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 68