9 research outputs found
Role of the Support and Reaction Conditions on the Vapor-Phase Deoxygenation of <i>m</i>āCresol over Pt/C and Pt/TiO<sub>2</sub> Catalysts
The
catalytic deoxygenation of biomass fast pyrolysis vapors offers
a promising route for the sustainable production of liquid transportation
fuels. However, a clear understanding of the mechanistic details involved
in this process has yet to be achieved, and questions remain regarding
the role of the catalyst support and the influence of reaction conditions.
In order to gain insight into these questions, the deoxygenation of <i>m</i>-cresol was investigated over Pt/C and Pt/TiO<sub>2</sub> catalysts using experimental and computational techniques. The performance
of each catalyst was evaluated in a packed-bed reactor under two conditions
(523 K, 2.0 MPa and 623 K, 0.5 MPa), and the energetics of the ring
hydrogenation, direct deoxygenation, and tautomerization mechanisms
were calculated over hydrogen-covered Pt(111) and oxygen vacancies
on the surface of TiO<sub>2</sub>(101). Over Pt(111), ring hydrogenation
to 3-methylcyclohexanone and 3-methylcyclohexanol was found to be
the most energetically favorable pathway. Over TiO<sub>2</sub>(101),
tautomerization and direct deoxygenation to toluene were identified
as additional energetically favorable routes. These calculations are
consistent with the experimental data, in which Pt/TiO<sub>2</sub> was more active on a metal site basis and exhibited higher selectivity
to toluene at 623 K relative to Pt/C. On the basis of these results,
it is likely that the reactivity of Pt/TiO<sub>2</sub> and Pt/C is
driven by the metallic phase at 523 K, while contributions from the
TiO<sub>2</sub> support enhance deoxygenation at 623 K. These results
highlight the synergistic effects between hydrogenation catalysts
and reducible metal oxide supports and provide insight into the reaction
pathways responsible for their enhanced deoxygenation performance
Alkaline Pretreatment of Corn Stover: Bench-Scale Fractionation and Stream Characterization
Biomass pretreatment generally aims to increase accessibility to
plant cell wall polysaccharides for carbohydrate-active enzymes to
produce sugars for biological or catalytic upgrading to ethanol or
advanced biofuels. Significant research has been conducted on a suite
of pretreatment processes for bioethanol processes. An alternative
option, which has received less attention in the biofuels community,
is the use of alkaline pretreatment for the partial depolymerization
of lignin from intact biomass. A known issue with alkaline pretreatment
is the loss of polysaccharides from peeling reactions, but this loss
can be mitigated with anthraquinone, as commonly practiced in pulping.
Here, we conduct a comprehensive bench-scale evaluation of alkaline
pretreatment using corn stover at temperatures of 100, 130, and 160
Ā°C and sodium hydroxide loadings from 35 to 660 mg NaOH/g dry
biomass with anthraquinone. Compositional analysis is conducted on
the starting material and residual solids after pretreatment, and
mass balance is inferred in the liquor by difference. The residual
solids after alkaline pretreatment are characterized for crystallinity
and imaged by scanning and transmission electron microscopy to reveal
the physical changes in the carbohydrate portions of the biomass remaining
after pretreatment, which demonstrate dramatic modifications to biomass
cell wall architecture with lignin removal but rather insignificant
changes in cellulose crystallinity. Our results show that alkaline
pretreatment at relatively mild conditions is able to remove substantial
amounts of lignin from biomass. Going forward, to be an economically
feasibile process, technologies will be required to upgrade the resulting
lignin-rich liquor stream
Ammonia Pretreatment of Corn Stover Enables Facile Lignin Extraction
Thermochemical pretreatment
of lignocellulose is often employed
to render polysaccharides more digestible by carbohydrate-active enzymes
to maximize sugar yields. The fate of lignin during pretreatment,
however, is highly dependent on the chemistry employed and must be
considered in cases where lignin valorization is targeted alongside
sugar conversionīøan important feature of future biorefinery
development. Here, a two-step process is demonstrated in which anhydrous
ammonia (AA) pretreatment is followed by mild NaOH extraction on corn
stover to solubilize and fractionate lignin. As known, AA pretreatment
simultaneously alters the structure of cellulose with enhanced digestibility
while redistributing lignin. The AA-pretreated residue is then extracted
with dilute NaOH at mild conditions to maximize lignin separation,
resulting in a digestible carbohydrate-rich solid fraction and a solubilized
lignin stream. Lignin removal of more than 65% with over 84% carbohydrate
retention is achieved after mild NaOH extraction of AA-pretreated
corn stover with 0.1 M NaOH at 25 Ā°C. Two-dimensional nuclear
magnetic resonance (2D-NMR) spectroscopy of the AA-pretreated residue
shows that ammonolysis of ester bonds occurs to partially liberate
hydroxycinnamic acids, and the AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted residue
exhibits a global reduction of all lignin moieties caused by reduced
lignin content. A significant reduction (ā¼70%) in the weight-average
molecular weight (<i>M</i><sub>w</sub>) of extracted lignin
is also achieved. Imaging of AA-pretreated/NaOH extracted residues show extensive delamination and disappearance
of coalesced lignin globules from within the secondary cell walls.
Glycome profiling analyses demonstrates ultrastructural level cell
wall modifications induced by AA pretreatment and NaOH extraction,
resulting in enhanced extractability of hemicellulosic glycans, indicating
enhanced polysaccharide accessibility. The glucose and xylose yields
from enzymatic hydrolysis of AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted corn stover
were higher by ā¼80% and ā¼60%, respectively, compared
to untreated corn stover at 1% solids loadings. For digestions at
20% solids, a benefit of NaOH extraction is realized in achieving
ā¼150 g/L of total monomeric sugars (glucose, xylose, and arabinose)
in the enzymatic hydrolysates from AA-pretreated/NaOH-extracted corn
stover. Overall, this process enables facile lignin extraction in
tandem with a leading thermochemical pretreatment approach, demonstrating
excellent retention of highly digestible polysaccharides in the solid
phase and a highly depolymerized, soluble lignin-rich stream
Application of a PyroprobeāDeuterium NMR System: Deuterium Tracing and Mechanistic Study of Upgrading Process for Lignin Model Compounds
In this study, a pyroprobeādeuterium
(<sup>2</sup>H) NMR
system has been used to identify isotopomer products formed during
the deuteration and ring opening of lignin model compounds. Several
common model compounds for lignin and its upgraded products, including
guaiacol, syringol, toluene, <i>p</i>-xylene, phenol, catechol,
cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, and methylcyclopentane, have been
examined for selective ring opening. Similar pathways for upgrading
of toluene and <i>p</i>-xylene has been found, which will
undergo hydrogenation, methyl group elimination, and ring opening
process, and benzene, cyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane have been
found as major intermediates before ring opening. Very interestingly,
the <sup>2</sup>H NMR analysis for the deuterium-traced ring opening
of catechol on Ir/Ī³-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> is almost identical
to the ring opening process for phenol. The ring opening processes
for guaiacol and syringol appeared to be very complicated, as expected.
Benzene, phenol, toluene, cyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane have
been determined to be the major products
Evaluation of Clean Fractionation Pretreatment for the Production of Renewable Fuels and Chemicals from Corn Stover
Organosolv
fractionation processes aim to separate the primary
biopolymers in lignocellulosic biomass to enable more selective deconstruction
and upgrading approaches for the isolated components. Clean fractionation
(CF) is a particularly effective organsolv process that was originally
applied to woody feedstocks. The original CF pretreatment employed
methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK), ethanol, and water with sulfuric acid
as a catalyst at temperatures ranging from 120 to 160 Ā°C. Understanding
the feasibility and applicability of organosolv processes for industrial
use requires mass balances on the primary polymers in biomass, detailed
understanding of the physical and chemical characteristics of the
fractionated components, and viable upgrading processes for each fraction.
Here, we apply two CF approaches to corn stover, one with MIBK/ethanol/water
and acid and the other with MIBK/acetone/water and acid, with the
aim of understanding if these fractionation methods are feasible for
industrial application. We quantify the full mass balances on the
resulting solid, organic, and aqueous fractions and apply multiple
analytical methods to characterize the three fractions. Total mass
yields of the cellulose-enriched, hemicellulose-enriched, and lignin-enriched
fractions are near mass closure in most cases. For corn stover, the
MIBK/acetone/water CF solvent system is more effective relative to
the original CF method based on the enhanced fractionation susceptibility
of the aqueous and organic phases and the lower molecular weight distribution
of the lignin-enriched fractions. Overall, this work reports component
mass balances for the fractionation of corn stover, providing key
inputs for detailed evaluation of CF processes based on bench-scale
data
Clean Fractionation Pretreatment Reduces Enzyme Loadings for Biomass Saccharification and Reveals the Mechanism of Free and Cellulosomal Enzyme Synergy
Enzymatic depolymerization of polysaccharides
is often a key step
in the production of fuels and chemicals from lignocellulosic biomass.
Historically, model cellulose substrates have been utilized to reveal
insights into enzymatic saccharification mechanisms. However, translating
findings from model substrates to realistic biomass substrates is
critical for evaluating enzyme performance. Here, we employ a commercial
fungal enzyme cocktail, purified cellulosomes, and combinations of
these two enzymatic systems to investigate saccharification mechanisms
on corn stover deconstructed either via clean fractionation (CF) or
deacetylated dilute sulfuric acid pretreatments. CF is an organosolv
pretreatment method utilizing water, MIBK, and either acetone or ethanol
with catalytic amounts of sulfuric acid to fractionate biomass components.
The insoluble cellulose-enriched fraction (CEF) from CF contains mainly
cellulose, with minor amounts of residual hemicellulose and lignin.
Enzymatic digestions at both low and high solid loadings demonstrate
that CF reduces the amount of enzyme required to depolymerize polysaccharides
relative to deacetylated dilute acid-pretreated corn stover. Transmission
and scanning electron microscopy of the digested biomass provides
evidence for the different mechanisms of enzymatic deconstruction
between free and cellulosomal enzyme systems and reveals the basis
for the synergistic relationship between the two enzyme paradigms
on a process-relevant substrate. These results also demonstrate that
the presence of lignin is more detrimental to cellulosome action than
to free fungal cellulases. As enzyme costs are a major driver for
biorefineries, this study provides key inputs for evaluation of CF
as a pretreatment method and synergistic mixed enzyme systems as a
saccharification strategy for biomass conversion
Aqueous Stream Characterization from Biomass Fast Pyrolysis and Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis
Biomass pyrolysis offers a promising
means to rapidly depolymerize
lignocellulosic biomass for subsequent catalytic upgrading to renewable
fuels. Substantial efforts are currently ongoing to optimize pyrolysis
processes including various fast pyrolysis and catalytic fast pyrolysis
schemes. In all cases, complex aqueous streams are generated containing
solubilized organic compounds that are not converted to target fuels
or chemicals and are often slated for wastewater treatment, in turn
creating an economic burden on the biorefinery. Valorization of the
species in these aqueous streams, however, offers significant potential
for substantially improving the economics and sustainability of thermochemical
biorefineries. To that end, here we provide a thorough characterization
of the aqueous streams from four pilot-scale pyrolysis processes:
namely, from fast pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis with downstream fractionation, <i>in situ</i> catalytic fast pyrolysis, and <i>exĀ situ</i> catalytic fast pyrolysis. These configurations and processes represent
characteristic pyrolysis processes undergoing intense development
currently. Using a comprehensive suite of aqueous-compatible analytical
techniques, we quantitatively characterize between 12 g kg<sup>ā1</sup> of organic carbon of a highly aqueous catalytic fast pyrolysis stream
and up to 315 g kg<sup>ā1</sup> of organic carbon present in
the fast pyrolysis aqueous streams. In all cases, the analysis ranges
between 75 and 100% of mass closure. The composition and stream properties
closely match the nature of pyrolysis processes, with high contents
of carbohydrate-derived compounds in the fast pyrolysis aqueous phase,
high acid content in nearly all streams, and mostly recalcitrant phenolics
in the heavily deoxygenated <i>ex situ</i> catalytic fast
pyrolysis stream. Overall, this work provides a detailed compositional
analysis of aqueous streams from leading thermochemical processesīøanalyses
that are critical for subsequent development of selective valorization
strategies for these waste streams
Lignin Depolymerization with Nitrate-Intercalated Hydrotalcite Catalysts
Hydrotalcites (HTCs) exhibit multiple
adjustable parameters to
tune catalytic activity, including interlayer anion composition, metal
hydroxide layer composition, and catalyst preparation methods. Here,
we report the influence of several of these parameters on Ī²-O-4
bond scission in a lignin model dimer, 2-phenoxy-1-phenethanol (PE),
to yield phenol and acetophenone. We find that the presence of both
basic and NO<sub>3</sub><sup>ā</sup> anions in the interlayer
increases the catalyst activity by 2ā3-fold. In contrast, other
anions or transition metals do not enhance catalytic activity in comparison
to blank HTC. The catalyst is not active for CāC bond cleavage
on lignin model dimers and has no effect on dimers without an Ī±-OH
group. Most importantly, the catalyst is highly active in the depolymerization
of two process-relevant lignin substrates, producing a significant
amount of low-molecular-weight aromatic species. The catalyst can
be recycled until the NO<sub>3</sub><sup>ā</sup> anions are
depleted, after which the activity can be restored by replenishing
the NO<sub>3</sub><sup>ā</sup> reservoir and regenerating the
hydrated HTC structure. These results demonstrate a route to selective
lignin depolymerization in a heterogeneous system with an inexpensive,
earth-abundant, commercially relevant, and easily regenerated catalyst
The Techno-Economic Basis for Coproduct Manufacturing To Enable Hydrocarbon Fuel Production from Lignocellulosic Biomass
Biorefinery process development relies
on techno-economic analysis
(TEA) to identify primary cost drivers, prioritize research directions,
and mitigate technical risk for scale-up through development of detailed
process designs. Here, we conduct TEA of a model 2000 dry metric ton-per-day
lignocellulosic biorefinery that employs a two-step pretreatment and
enzymatic hydrolysis to produce biomass-derived sugars, followed by
biological lipid production, lipid recovery, and catalytic hydrotreating
to produce renewable diesel blendstock (RDB). On the basis of projected
near-term technical feasibility of these steps, we predict that RDB
could be produced at a minimum fuel selling price (MFSP) of USD 5.28/GGE when leaving conversion and
yield parameters unchanged for the fuel production pathway, leading
to a change in biorefinery RDB capacity from 24 to 15 MM GGE/year
and 0.13 MM tons of succinic acid per year. Additional analysis demonstrates
that beyond the near-term projections assumed in the models here,
further reductions in the MFSP toward $2ā3/GGE (which would
be competitive with fossil-based hydrocarbon fuels) are possible with
additional transformational improvements in the fuel and coproduct
trains, especially in terms of carbon efficiency to both fuels and
coproducts, recovery and purification of fuels and coproducts, and
coproduct selection and price. Overall, this analysis documents potential
economics for both a hydrocarbon fuel and bioproduct process pathway
and highlights prioritized research directions beyond the current
benchmark to enable hydrocarbon fuel production via an oleaginous
microbial platform with simultaneous coproduct manufacturing from
lignocellulosic biomass