Choosing Short: An Explanation of the Similarities and Dissimilarities in the Distribution Patterns of Binding and Covaluation

Covaluation is the generalization of coreference introduced by Tanya Reinhart. Covaluation distributes in patterns that are very similar yet not entirely identical to those of binding. On a widespread view, covaluation and binding distribute similarly because binding is defined in terms of covaluation. Yet on Reinhart's view, binding and covaluation are not related that way: binding pertains to syntax, covaluation does not. Naturally, the widespread view can easily explain the similarities between binding and covaluation, whereas Reinhart can easily explain the dissimilarities. Reciprocally, the widespread view finds it harder to explain the dissimilarities, whereas Reinhart finds it harder to explain the similarities. Reinhart and others have proposed more than one explanation of the similarities, but as I argue, these explanations do not work. Hence although I adopt Reinhart's view, I propose a new explanation of the similarities and dissimilarities between binding and covaluation: While Reinhart has invoked semantic structure only to explain dissimilarities, I do so to explain both similarities and dissimilarities at once. Finally, I examine in light of this approach the topics of language acquisition, only-constructions, the identity predicate, the Partee/Bach/Higginbotham problem, the Dahl puzzle and its recent versions by Roelofsen

Relative abundances of bacterial genera in the fresh, snap and frozen samples.

<p>Statistically significant differences in genera are indicated with an asterisk (*) (p<0.05). The Other category contains all other genera present at <0.01% of assignable reads at genus level. No significant differences in any of these genera between the 3 groups was found using non-parametric Kruskall-Wallis analysis, where statistical significance was accepted as p<0.05, adjusted for ties.</p

Microbiological enumeration of total aerobes (A), total anaerobes (B) and bifidobacteria (C) in log CFUg-1 faeces from fresh (blue), -80°C frozen (green) and snap samples (red).

<p>RM one-way ANOVA statistical testing showed no significant difference between storage conditions fresh, frozen at -80°C or snap frozen for the three groups tested.</p

Estimates of alpha diversity for the fresh, −80°C frozen and snap frozen samples.

<p>Estimates of alpha diversity for the fresh, −80°C frozen and snap frozen samples.</p

Relative abundances of bacterial phyla in the fresh (blue), snap (red) and -80°C frozen samples (green).

<p>Other contains phyla present at < 1% of assignable sequences at phylum level.</p

Cytokine production by mitogen-stimulated PBMC from pigs fed diets containing Bt and isogenic maize (pg/mL)¹.

1<p>Values are given as the median with 25^th to 75^th percentiles in parentheses.</p>2<p>Isogenic: isogenic maize diet for 110 days.</p>3<p>Bt: Bt maize diet for 110 days.</p>4<p>Isogenic/Bt: isogenic maize diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize diet for 80 days.</p>5<p>Bt/isogenic: Bt maize diet for 30 days followed by isogenic maize diet for 80 days.</p

Composition of diets (as is basis, %).

1<p>Isogenic: non-GM parent line maize.</p>2<p>Bt; Bt MON810 maize.</p>3<p>Lactofeed 70 contains 70% lactose, 11.5% protein, 0.5% oil, 7.5% ash and 0.5% fibre (Volac, Cambridge, UK).</p>4<p>Immunopro 35 contains whey protein powder - protein 35% (Volac, Cambridge, UK).</p>5<p>Premix provided per kg of complete diet: Cu, 155 mg; Fe, 90 mg; Mn, 47 mg; Zn, 120 mg, I, 0.6 mg; Se, 0.3 mg; vitamin A, 6000 IU; vitamin D_3, 1000 IU; vitamin E, 100 IU; vitamin K, 4 mg; vitamin B_12, 15 µg; riboflavin, 2 mg; nicotinic acid, 12 mg; pantothenic acid, 10 mg; choline chloride, 250 mg; vitamin B_1, 2 mg; vitamin B_6, 3 mg.</p>6<p>Premix provided per kg of complete diet: Cu, 15 mg; Fe, 24 mg; Mn, 31 mg; Zn, 80 mg, I, 0.3 mg; Se, 0.2 mg; vitamin A, 2000 IU; vitamin D_3, 500 IU; vitamin E, 40 IU; vitamin K, 4 mg; vitamin B_12, 15 µg; riboflavin, 2 mg; nicotinic acid, 12 mg; pantothenic acid, 10 mg; vitamin B_1, 2 mg; vitamin B_6, 3 mg.</p>7<p>Formaxol is a blend of encapsulated formic and citric acids and essential oils (Soda Feed Ingredients, Monaco).</p>8<p>Mycosorb® is an organic mycotoxin adsorbent (Alltech, Dunboyne, Co. Meath, Ireland).</p>9<p>Calculated values.</p>10<p>The starter diet was formulated as meal.</p

Effect of feeding Bt maize to pigs on relative abundance of major cecal bacterial genera.

<p>Data presented as medians ±5^th–95^th percentiles. A full outline of the relative abundance of all bacterial taxa in the porcine cecum is available in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0033668#pone.0033668.s006" target="_blank">Table S1</a> and minor taxa which were statistically significant or showed tendencies towards significance are presented in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0033668#pone-0033668-t004" target="_blank">Table 4</a>. Isogenic - isogenic parent line maize-based diet was fed for 110 days (n = 8 pigs/treatment). Bt - Bt maize-based diet was fed for 110 days (n = 9 pigs/treatment). Isogenic/Bt - isogenic maize-based diet was fed for 30 days followed by Bt maize-based diet for 80 days (n = 10 pigs/treatment). Bt/isogenic - Bt maize-based diet was fed for 30 days followed by isogenic maize-based diet for 80 days (n = 10 pigs/treatment). ^x,yMedians with different superscripts indicate a tendency towards statistical significance (0.05<<i>P</i><0.10).</p

Effect of feeding isogenic or Bt maize-based diets to pigs from 12 days post-weaning for 110 days on fecal bacterial counts¹.

1<p>Bacterial counts are presented as means of log₁₀ CFU g⁻¹ wet weight.</p>2<p>Isogenic - isogenic parent line maize-based diet for 110 days (n = 8 pigs/treatment).</p>3<p>Bt - Bt maize-based diet for 110 days (n = 9 pigs/treatment).</p>4<p>Isogenic/Bt - isogenic maize-based diet for 30 days followed by a Bt maize-based diet for 80 days (n = 10 pigs/treatment).</p>5<p>Bt/isogenic - Bt maize-based diet for 30 days followed by a isogenic maize-based diet for 80 days (n = 10 pigs/treatment).</p>6<p>Computed using the <i>mixed</i> procedure in SAS.</p

Mean Bt toxin concentrations (ng/mL) in gastrointestinal digesta of pigs fed Bt and isogenic maize¹.

1<p>Values in parentheses correspond to the percentage of pigs within each treatment that tested positive for the Bt toxin.</p>2<p>Isogenic: isogenic maize diet for 110 days.</p>3<p>Bt: Bt maize diet for 110 days.</p>4<p>Isogenic/Bt: isogenic maize diet for 30 days followed by Bt maize diet for 80 days.</p>5<p>Bt/isogenic: Bt maize diet for 30 days followed by isogenic maize diet for 80 days.</p>6<p>BLD – below the limit of detection (stomach; 0.82 ng/mL, cecum; 2.16 ng/mL, colon; 1.48 ng/mL).</p