14 research outputs found
Identification of PalytoxinâCa<sup>2+</sup> Complex by NMR and Molecular Modeling Techniques
More
than 40 years after its isolation, the understanding of how
palytoxin interacts with biological systems has yet to be fully determined.
The Na<sup>+</sup>,K<sup>+</sup>-ATPase pump constitutes a molecular
receptor for palytoxin that is able to convert the pump into an open
channel, with consequent loss of cellular K<sup>+</sup> and remarkable
rise of cytosolic Na<sup>+</sup> levels. In addition, a slight permeability
to Ca<sup>2+</sup> is detected when palytoxin binds to the pump. It
has been demonstrated that the increase of cytosolic free Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration gives rise to downstream events ultimately leading
to cell death. The widely accepted recognition of the dependence of
important cellular events on calcium ion concentration propelled us
to investigate the occurrence of palytoxinâCa<sup>2+</sup> complex
in aqueous solution by NMR- and molecular modeling-based approach.
We identified two specific regions of palytoxin where Ca<sup>2+</sup> is preferentially coordinated. This study constitutes the first
characterization of a calcium complex with palytoxin and, as such,
is expected to support the investigation of the toxin molecular bioactivity
Ovatoxin-a, A Palytoxin Analogue Isolated from <i>Ostreopsis</i> cf. <i>ovata</i> Fukuyo: Cytotoxic Activity and ELISA Detection
This
study provides the first evaluation of the cytotoxic effects
of the recently identified palytoxin (PLTX) analog, ovatoxin-a (OVTX-a),
the major toxin produced by <i>Ostreopsis</i> cf. <i>ovata</i> in the Mediterranean Sea. Its increasing detection
during <i>Ostreopsis</i> blooms and in seafood highlights
the need to characterize its toxic effects and to set up appropriate
detection methods. OVTX-a is about 100 fold less potent than PLTX
in reducing HaCaT cells viability (EC<sub>50</sub> = 1.1 Ă 10<sup>â9</sup> M vs 1.8 Ă 10<sup>â11</sup> M, MTT test)
in agreement with a reduced binding affinity (<i>K</i><sub>d</sub> = 1.2 Ă 10<sup>â9</sup> vs 2.7 Ă 10<sup>â11</sup> M, saturation experiments on intact cells). Similarly,
OVTX-a hemolytic effect is lower than that of the reference PLTX compound.
Ost-D shows the lowest cytotoxicity toward HaCaT keratinocytes, suggesting
the lack of a hydroxyl group at C44 as a critical feature for PLTXs
cytotoxic effects. A sandwich ELISA developed for PLTX detects also
OVTX-a in a sensitive (LOD = 4.2 and LOQ = 5.6 ng/mL) and accurate
manner (Bias = 0.3%), also in <i>O.</i> cf. <i>ovata</i> extracts and contaminated mussels. Although in vitro OVTX-a appears
less toxic than PLTX, its cytotoxicity at nanomolar concentrations
after short exposure time rises some concern for human health. The
sandwich ELISA can be a viable screening method for OVTXs detection
in monitoring program
Stereoisomers of 42-Hydroxy Palytoxin from Hawaiian <i>Palythoa toxica</i> and <i>P. tuberculosa</i>: Stereostructure Elucidation, Detection, and Biological Activities
Palytoxin ranks among the most potent
marine biotoxins. Its lethality
was well known to native Hawaiians that used to smear a âmossâ
containing the toxin on their spears to cause instant death to their
victims. Human intoxications due to exposure to palytoxin and to its
many congeners have been reported worldwide. Currently, palytoxins
constitute the main threat to public health across the Mediterranean
Sea. In the present work we report on the isolation and stereostructural
determination of a new palytoxin analogue from a Hawaiian <i>Palythoa tuberculosa</i> sample. This new toxin is a stereoisomer
of 42-hydroxypalytoxin isolated from <i>Palythoa toxica</i>. The whole absolute configuration of this latter toxin is also reported
in the paper. Interestingly, the two 42-hydroxypalytoxins do not share
the same biological activity. The stereoisomer from <i>P. tuberculosa</i> showed cytotoxicity toward skin HaCaT keratinocytes approximately
1 order of magnitude lower than that of 42-hydroxypalytoxin from <i>P. toxica</i> and about 2 orders of magnitude lower than that
of palytoxin itself. This finding holds the prospect of interesting
structureâactivity relationship evaluations in the future
Isolation and Structure Elucidation of Ovatoxin-a, the Major Toxin Produced by Ostreopsis ovata
Since 2005, the benthic dinoflagellate Ostreopsis cf. ovata has bloomed across the
Mediterranean basin, provoking serious toxic outbreaks. LC/MS studies
have identified a number of palytoxin-like compounds, termed ovatoxins,
along with trace amounts of putative palytoxin as the causative agents
of the O. cf. ovata-related human sufferings. So far, any risk assessment for ovatoxins
as well as establishment of their allowance levels in seafood has
been prevented by the lack of pure toxins. The present paper reports
on the isolation, NMR-based structural determination, and preliminary
mouse lethality evaluation of ovatoxin-a, the major toxic compound
contained in O. cf. ovata extracts. Availability of pure ovatoxin-a will
open the double prospect of fully evaluating its toxicity and preparing
reference standards to be employed in LC/MS quantitative analyses.
Elucidation of ovatoxin-aâs complex structure will ultimately
herald the understanding of the molecular bases of ovatoxins bioactivity
MAPKs activation and toxin-induced COX-2, TNF-α, IL-8 and IÎșBα mRNA expression upon p38 MAPK and JNK inhibition.
<p>(<b>A</b>) Western blot analysis of MAPK phosphorylation in macrophages incubated 4 h with the <i>O</i>. cf. <i>ovata</i> toxin extract (final OSTRTX concentration 2 ng/ml and 20 ng/ml) (lane 2, 3), 2 ng/ml PLTX (lane 4) or the vehicle (lane 1). 20 ”g of whole cell extracts were separated by SDS-PAGE on 8% gel and submitted to western immunoblot with phospho-specific antibodies against ERK1/2, JNK and p38 MAPK. Actin was stained as a loading control. (<b>B</b>) Total RNA was extracted from macrophages pre-incubated 1 h with 1 ”M p38 inhibitor (ip38) or 1 ”M and 5 ”M JNK inhibitor (iJNK), and then exposed 4 h to 2 ng/ml palytoxin. In parallel, macrophages were left untreated and then exposed to PLTX or to the vehicle alone. RNA was amplified with gene-specific primers. Expression data, normalized to the housekeeping B2M gene, were analyzed by the 2<sup>âÎÎCT</sup> method and referred to the value obtained in control cells (CTR). The boxplots show the results of 3 independent experiments, run in duplicate. Asterisks indicate statistical significance versus cells receiving only PLTX (*<i>p</i><0.05; **<i>p</i><0.01).</p
IÎșB-α mRNA levels in human macrophages exposed to PLTX and to the OSTRTX extract.
<p>Evaluation of IÎșB-α mRNA levels by quantitative Real-Time PCR assay. Total RNA, extracted from primary human macrophages exposed 4 h to PLTX, to the <i>O</i>. cf. <i>ovata</i> toxin extract (final OSTRTX concentration 2 ng/ml and 20 ng/ml) or to the vehicle (i.e. 0.05% MetOH), was amplified with IÎșB-α gene-specific primers. Expression data, normalized to the housekeeping B2M gene, were analysed by the 2<sup>âÎÎCT</sup> method and referred to the value obtained in untreated cells (CTR). The boxplots show the results of 8 and 5 independent experiments performed with PLTX and the OSTRTX extract, respectively. Asterisks indicate statistical significance versus cells receiving the vehicle alone (*<i>p</i><0.05; **<i>p</i><0.01).</p
Structure of palytoxin.
<p>Cleavage between C-8 and C-9 occurs in HR LC-MS and MS<sup>2</sup> experiments and divides the molecule in two moieties, A-side and B-side.</p
IÎșBα and p65 protein levels in cells treated with the vehicle, the OSTRTX extract and PLTX.
<p>(<b>A</b>) IÎșBα protein levels were determined in whole cell lysates obtained from macrophages incubated 4 h with the vehicle (lane 1), the OSTRTX extract (lanes 2â3) or PLTX (lane 4). Protein extracts (15 ”g) were resolved by SDS-PAGE on 8% gel and then submitted to Western immunoblotting. Blots were probed with an anti-IÎșBα (upper panel) and an anti-p65 (RelA) antibody to check for protein loading (lower panel). (<b>B</b>) intracellular content and subcellular distribution of p65 (RelA) in PLTX- versus vehicle-treated cells was assessed by immunoblotting analysis of whole (15 ”g, lanes 1â2), cytosolic (15 ”g, lanes 3â4) and nuclear (10 ”g, lane 5â6) extracts. Whole cell extracts were obtained by lysing cells in SDS buffer. In parallel, cells were sub-fractionated by extraction in Buffer A (BUFF A, cytosolic proteins) followed by Buffer B (nuclear proteins, BUFF B), the residual material, containing insoluble proteins, including those associated with cytoskeletal structures, was solubilized in SDS-PAGE sample buffer and run in parallel (lanes 7â8). (<b>C</b>) Approaches to inhibit p65 <i>in vitro</i> degradation during extraction in native conditions. Cell pellets, containing an equivalent number of macrophages, were lysed in SDS buffer (SDS BUFF, lane 1), Buffer A (BUFF A, lane 2) or Buffer A supplemented with palytoxin (BUFF A+PLTX, lane 3). An equal volume of SDS sample buffer was added to all tubes and comparable volumes of the resulting protein extracts were resolved by electrophoresis and immunoblotted with an anti p65 antibody.(<b>D</b>) cell pellets as in C were lysed in SDS buffer (lane 1), Buffer A (lane 2) and Buffer A further supplemented with lysososmal protease inhibitors (BUFF A PLUS, lane 3) and submitted to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with an anti p65 antibody.</p
COX-2, IL-8 and TNF-α mRNA levels in human macrophages exposed to PLTX and to the OSTRTX extract.
<p>Evaluation of COX-2, IL-8 and TNF-α mRNA levels by quantitative Real-Time PCR assay. Total RNA, extracted from primary human macrophages exposed 4 h to PLTX (2 ng/ml), to the <i>O</i>. cf. <i>ovata</i> toxin extract (final OSTRTX concentration 2 ng/ml and 20 ng/ml) or the vehicle (i.e. 0.05% MetOH), was amplified with gene-specific primers. Expression data, normalized to the housekeeping B2M gene, were analyzed by the 2<sup>âÎÎCT</sup> method and referred to the value obtained in untreated cells (CTR). The boxplots show the results of 8 and 5 independent experiments performed with PLTX and the OSTRTX extract, respectively. Asterisks indicate statistical significance versus cells receiving the vehicle alone (*<i>p</i><0.05; **<i>p</i><0.01).</p
Inhibition of PLTX-induced COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-8 mRNA expression upon NF-ÎșB inhibition.
<p>Total RNA was extracted from primary human macrophages pre-incubated 1 h with 50 ”M andrographolide, an NF-ÎșB inhibitor molecule (iNF-ÎșB), and then exposed 4 h to PLTX (2 ng/ml). In parallel, macrophages were treated with PLTX or the vehicle alone. RNA was amplified with gene-specific primers. IÎșBα and UbC mRNA levels were used as positive and negative control, respectively. Expression data, normalized to the housekeeping B2M gene, were analysed by the 2<sup>âÎÎCT</sup> method and referred to the value obtained in untreated cells (CTR). The boxplots show the results of 5 independent experiments. Asterisks indicate statistical significance versus cells receiving PLTX (*<i>p</i><0.05; **<i>p</i><0.01).</p