Witches, pagans and historians:an extended review of Max Dashu, <i>Witches and Pagans: Women in European Folk Religion, 700-1000 </i>

Additional file 4: Table S4. DEGs associated with the HB sources but not with the behavior. A modified t-test was performed on the log-transformed transcription ratios gained from 82 hybridizations. Oligo Ids, Gene Ids, and Comments are quoted from the UIUC Honey bee oligo 13 K v1 annotation file (May 2007)

Box plots display the uncapping engagement and performance of L1 and L2 bees (shown in blue) and H1 and H2 bees (shown in red) in the mixed L/H, pure L and pure H bee groups.

<p>(A) The proportions (%) of L1 or L2 and H1 and H2 bees that engaged in the uncapping task in the different cages. (B) The counts of uncapping acts per L1 or L2 and H1 and H2 bee that engaged in the uncapping task in the different cages. The differences between L and H bees in the mixed and pure groups in (A) and (B) were compared by <i>MWU</i>-tests (* denotes <i>P</i><0.05, <i>n</i> = 12).</p

Group behavioral uncapping responses in the mixed L/H and pure L and H bee cages.

<p>(A) The number of workers that engaged in uncapping tasks per treated brood cell (boxplot; combined data from different cages). Numbers represent cumulative data from all cages. Medians were compared with the <i>Median</i>-test; * denotes <i>P</i><0.05, and ** denotes <i>P</i><0.005. (B) The number of uncapped and non-uncapped cells in a colony as a measure of colony-level performance. The expected value in mixed cages was calculated based on the additive combination of the pure L and H bee colony outcomes and the relative contributions of bees in the mixed cages. * denotes <i>P</i><0.02. We identified 105 treated brood cells at which bees engaged in uncapping behavior, which were analyzed in (A), and 108 treated brood that were actually uncapped in the different genotypic mixed groups.</p

Modules of co-regulated transcripts identified among the 943 candidate genes that exhibited altered expression in the combined condition of behavior and genotypic mixing.

<p>|<i>r^—</i>| denotes the average correlation as estimated from the mean of all pairwise correlations of transcripts within a module. B denotes the condition of behavior, and C represents the condition of genotypic mixing. Relative proportions were calculated from the entire set of pairwise correlations within the modules. The percentage of identified orthologs in <i>Drosophila melanogaster</i> was obtained from the UIUC Honey Bee oligo 13K v1 annotation file (May 2007).</p

Hygienic behavior of honeybee workers in the Low (L), High (H), and Low/High (L/H) mixed groups.

<p>(A) Schematic representation of the experimental setup of the cages. Newly emerged L and H worker bees from the two L (L1 and L2) and two H (H1 and H2) genetic hygienic behavior sources were used to establish mixed L/H, pure L and pure H bee cages. Each cage consisted of ∼500 individually marked bees. L bees are shown in blue, and H bees are shown in red. (B) An example of a worker (tag no. 89) that engaged in uncapping behavior. The hygienic behavior of ∼12-day-old workers was monitored for 12 hours in a brood comb that contained ∼33 pin-killed pupae and control brood cells.</p

Independent Evolutionary Origin of <i>fem</i> Paralogous Genes and Complementary Sex Determination in Hymenopteran Insects

<div><p>The primary signal of sex determination in the honeybee, the <i>complementary sex determiner</i> (<i>csd</i>) gene, evolved from a gene duplication event from an ancestral copy of the <i>fem</i> gene. Recently, other paralogs of the <i>fem</i> gene have been identified in several ant and bumblebee genomes. This discovery and the close phylogenetic relationship of the paralogous gene sequences led to the hypothesis of a single ancestry of the <i>csd</i> genetic system of complementary sex determination in the Hymenopteran insects, in which the <i>fem</i> and <i>csd</i> gene copies evolved as a unit in concert with the mutual transfers of sequences (concerted evolution). Here, we show that the paralogous gene copies evolved repeatedly through independent gene duplication events in the honeybee, bumblebee, and ant lineage. We detected no sequence tracts that would indicate a DNA transfer between the <i>fem</i> and the <i>fem1/csd</i> genes between different ant and bee species. Instead, we found tracts of duplication events in other genomic locations, suggesting that gene duplication was a frequent event in the evolution of these genes. These and other evidences suggest that the <i>fem1/csd</i> gene originated repeatedly through gene duplications in the bumblebee, honeybee, and ant lineages in the last 100 million years. Signatures of concerted evolution were not detectable, implicating that the gene tree based on neutral synonymous sites represents the phylogenetic relationships and origins of the <i>fem</i> and <i>fem1/csd</i> genes. Our results further imply that the <i>fem1</i> and <i>csd</i> gene in bumblebees, honeybees, and ants are not orthologs, because they originated independently from the <i>fem</i> gene. Hence, the widely shared and conserved complementary sex determination mechanism in Hymenopteran insects is controlled by different genes and molecular processes. These findings highlight the limits of comparative genomics and emphasize the requirement to study gene functions in different species and major hymenopteran lineages.</p></div

Model of the indirect genetic effects on behavioral responsiveness and gene expression in the brain.

<p>Model of the indirect genetic effects on behavioral responsiveness and gene expression in the brain.</p

Events of gene conversion and recombination in the <i>fem</i> and <i>csd</i> sequences of <i>A. mellifera</i>, <i>A. dorsata</i> and <i>A. cerana</i>.

<p>Tracts of putatively recombined sequences were detected by seven different methods as indicated on the <i>x</i>-axis using the RDP 3.44 software program. The analysis was run on a single alignment of 71 <i>csd</i> and 4 <i>fem</i> sequences. (a) The number of concerted evolution events that refer to the DNA transfer between paralogous genes <i>fem</i> and <i>csd</i>. (b) The number of recombination events that identify events between sequences of the same gene. Falsely detected events (FDE) in (a) and (b) refer to biologically implausible events. The outgroup reference sequence, <i>B. terrestris fem</i>, was never involved in one of the detected events.</p

Two models for the evolutionary history of <i>fem</i> paralogous genes in ants and bees: (a) repeated gene duplication and (b) concerted evolution.

<p>Points in (<b>a</b>) denote gene duplication events giving rise to two gene copies. Connecting lines in (<b>b</b>) between branches indicate concerted evolution events resulting from unequal crossing over and/or gene conversion.</p