Los megalitos de término. Crónica del valor territorial de los monumentos megalíticos a partir de las fuentes escritas

Megalithic monuments have played dijferent roles throughout History. One of them has a spatial function, i.e. as landmarks. The aim of this paper has been to collect and analyse every written reference concerning Galician megaliths operating as landmarks between the 6th and 19th centuries AD. On this basis, the evolution of this social-territorial function of the monuments through time is reconstructed, and an interpretative hypothesis for this phenomenon is proposed. Finally, the importance of reviewing written sources as a methodology for archaeological survey and for studies of the topographic settings of monuments is emphasised.A lo largo de la Historia, los monumentos megalíticos han desempeñado, entre otras, una función espacial, como marcos de territorio. Para este artículo se recogen y analizan las referencias escritas a megalitos gallegos funcionando como marcadores o identificadores espaciales, entre los siglos VI y XIX d.C. A partir de este registro de fuentes se reconstruye la evolución de este papel social-territorial de los monumentos en las distintas épocas. Se plantea un modelo interpretativo para este fenómeno, y se valora la revisión de fuentes escritas como metodología para la prospección arqueológica y para los estudios de emplazamiento de megalitos

El Padre Sarmiento y el megalitismo gallego

In this paper, the observations made by Father Martin Sarmiento (1695-1772) upon the megalithic complex in Galicia are collected and analysed in their historical context. On this basis, his contribution to our knowledge of this phenomenon is discussed, and it is argued that he was the first scholar to consider the monuments as actual sources of information about the past. Lastly, a table with his references to specific megaliths and their location is presented, in the hope that this could be of use for modem archaeological surveys.Se recogen y analizan, dentro de su contexto histórico, las referencias del Padre Fray Martín Sarmiento (1695-1772) al megalitismo gallego. A partir de ellas se estudia su aportación al conocimiento de este fenómeno y se comprueba cómo él inaugura la consideración de los monumentos como verdaderos documentos que informan sobre el pasado. Finalmente, se presenta una tabla con sus alusiones más específicas a monumentos megalíticos que podría facilitar eventuales trabajos de prospección arqueológica

Bronze production in the Iron Age of the Iberian Peninsula: The case of El Castru, Vigaña (Asturias, NW Spain)

Bronze production during the Iron Age of the Iberian Peninsula is characterised by the use of a relatively simple technology, based on crucible-furnaces. In an area rich in mineral resources, bronze was produced on a small scale and within settlements, to be used for ritual, ornamental and functional objects. Here we present an analytical study of slagged crucibles, small slag nodules and casting spillage fromthe Iron Age hillfort of El Castru, in Vigaña (Asturias, NW Iberia), with a particular focus on the technology of bronze production. The study sought to contribute to our understanding of Pre-Roman metallurgical activities in the region, as a case in point to discuss broader prehistoric traditions of bronze-making. The results showthat the technology and scale of bronze production at this hillfort are coherentwith the pattern described for much of prehistoric metallurgy in Iberia, with the -direct production of copper alloys by cementation and co-smelting of mineral ores. The results also illustrate some of the challenges encountered when attempting to identify metallurgical processes through the analyses of crucible residues, and propose some criteria to facilitate future studies.Peer reviewe

Reverse engineering of ceramic anthropomorphic figurines from the Tumaco archaeological tradition in southwest Colombia.

Traditional studies of archaeological ceramics in Colombia have been largely based on visual and stylistic analyses. Here we introduce frameworks and concepts of reverse engineering as a complementary strategy to develop hypotheses about ceramic manufacture, as a first step to the address possible cross-craft relationships and broader sociocultural parameters affecting technical traditions. Our case study is focused on ceramic figurines recovered from two archaeological sites in southwest Colombia (Inguapí and La Cocotera), both dated to the period of greatest cultural and technological development of the Tumaco tradition (350 BC-AD 350). The results of the analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader tradition, developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site. These are shown through chemical and mineralogical differences in the raw materials, as well as differences in their preparation and shaping, molding, and modeling processes as observed at the microstructural level. Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit. The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip. Notwithstanding differences between sites, the ceramic figurines illustrate a particular technical style that undoubtedly conveyed a shared ideological message of cultural affiliation. These results contribute in an innovative way to archaeological ceramic studies in Colombia from a different perspective that is complementary to the more common typological studies

Reverse engineering of ceramic anthropomorphic figurines from the Tumaco archaeological tradition in southwest Colombia.

Traditional studies of archaeological ceramics in Colombia have been largely based on visual and stylistic analyses. Here we introduce frameworks and concepts of reverse engineering as a complementary strategy to develop hypotheses about ceramic manufacture, as a first step to the address possible cross-craft relationships and broader sociocultural parameters affecting technical traditions. Our case study is focused on ceramic figurines recovered from two archaeological sites in southwest Colombia (Inguapí and La Cocotera), both dated to the period of greatest cultural and technological development of the Tumaco tradition (350 BC-AD 350). The results of the analyses including microscopy, XRF, SEM-EDS and XRD revealed two manufacturing pathways within the broader tradition, developed locally and adapted to the natural resources available to each site. These are shown through chemical and mineralogical differences in the raw materials, as well as differences in their preparation and shaping, molding, and modeling processes as observed at the microstructural level. Estimated firing temperatures are under 600°C for La Cocotera, and under 800°C for those of Inguapí, with an inhomogeneous, oxidizing atmosphere probably related to firing in a pit. The superficial characterization shows that all the figurines were painted, with those from Inguapí externally smoothed and polished, and those from La Cocotera covered with a slip. Notwithstanding differences between sites, the ceramic figurines illustrate a particular technical style that undoubtedly conveyed a shared ideological message of cultural affiliation. These results contribute in an innovative way to archaeological ceramic studies in Colombia from a different perspective that is complementary to the more common typological studies

The earliest Baltic amber in Western Europe

This study has been supported by the R&D Project 'Metal y Ámbar II: Circulación de bronce y ámbar en el Sureste peninsular durante la Edad del Bronce' (PID2019-108289GB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033) and the R&D Project ‘Social and Exchange Networks in the Argaric Society’ (PID2022-137494NB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. The contribution of M.M.T. was supported by funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No. 101021480, Project REVERSEACTION). We want to thank D. Pérez L’Huiller for editing Fig. , and M. Vilar Welter for editing Fig. . We are also grateful to J.F. Gibaja Bao, M.E. Subirà and M. Fontanals-Colls, who kindly shared the AMS radiocarbon dates funded by their respective projects. Date CF-X30-C4-134 was obtained in the framework of the R&D Project ‘Aproximación a las primeras comunidades neolíticas del NE peninsular a través de sus prácticas funerarias’ (HAR2011-23149) funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, IP: J. Gibaja and M.E. Subirà. Date CF-S19-C4R-56 was obtained in the framework of the R&D Project ‘NEOMEDIS: Neolithic Mediterranean diet through stable Isotope analysis’, funded in the framework of the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellowship (ID: 792130), IP: M. Fontanals.The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-023-41293-0The occurrence of Baltic amber through Europe has traditionally been associated to the spread of the Bell Beaker culture during the 3rd millennium BC. In Iberia, this phenomenon is particularly noticeable in the southern half. Here we present an amber bead recovered in a Late Neolithic funerary cave (3634–3363 cal BC) from northeastern Iberia where more than 12 individuals had been buried. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results of four samples revealed their complete resemblance with Baltic succinite reference spectra. Despite being a single bead, this finding provides the earliest evidence for the arrival of Baltic amber to the Mediterranean and Western Europe, before the Bell Beaker phenomenon and more than a millennium earlier than traditionally thought. This finding has implications for our understanding of early exchange networks of exotic materials, and their associated social structures.Social and Exchange Networks in the Argaric Society PID2022-137494NB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033Horizon 2020 Framework Programme 101021480, 792130, HAR2011-23149 H2020European Research Council ERCMinisterio de Ciencia e Innovación MICIN

Some problems and potentials of the study of cupellation remains: the case of post-medieval Montbéliard, France

Bone-ash cupels are increasingly identified in medieval and later archaeological contexts related to the refining of noble metals in alchemy, assaying, jewellery or coin minting. These small finds may provide information on metal refining activities, the technical knowledge of different craftspeople, and the versatility of laboratory practices, which often differed from the standard protocols recorded in metallurgical treatises. This paper is centred around a late 16th-early 17th century cupel excavated in Montbéliard, France. The analytical study by optical microscopy, ED-XRF and SEM-EDS allows the cupel to be ascribed to the assaying of the silver content of an ore sample, which is supported by local historical and geological information. The manufacture of the cupel, made of a mixture of wood ash and bone ash, is also addressed, as well as the limited technical efficiency of the operation. This leads to a wider discussion of different recipes for the manufacture of cupels, documented historically and archaeologically, and involving the combination of various raw materials such as bone, wood ashes and clay. This variability raises interesting questions about the existence of diverse technical traditions, and the material properties and performance of different cupels in their specific contexts. In order to facilitate comparisons, we propose that the study of cupellation remains is most informative when it combines microscopy and microanalysis. The role of experimental approaches to these questions is also discussed.Les coupelles en cendres d’os sont de plus en plus nombreuses à être reconnues dans des fouilles médiévales ou modernes. Elles sont utilisées pour l’affinage de métal précieux par les alchimistes, les essayeurs, les orfèvres ou encore les monnayeurs. Ces artefacts peuvent fournir des informations sur les techniques d’affinage, les savoir-faire et les pratiques de l’atelier qui souvent sont différentes des recettes et procédés décrits dans les textes métallurgiques. Cette étude concerne une coupelle de la fin du xviesiècle ou du début du xviie siècles découverte en fouille à Montbéliard (France). Les analyses, par microscopie optique, MEB-EDS, et ED-XRF permettent d’associer la coupelle à l’essai d’un échantillon de minerai de cuivre argentifère, hypothèse confirmée par l’étude des sources écrites et géologiques locales. La fabrication de la coupelle, faite d’un mélange de cendre de végétaux et de cendre d’os est également abordée comme les limites et l’efficacité de l’opération. Ces résultats mènent à une discussion plus large sur les différentes recettes de fabrication de coupelle grâce aux sources écrites et archéologiques qui indiquent des matières premières diversifiées comme la cendre d’os, la cendre de végétaux et la terre. Cette variabilité soulève des questions intéressantes sur l’existence de traditions techniques diverses ainsi que sur les propriétés et l’efficacité de ces coupelles. À des fins comparatives, nous concluons que l’étude de ces artefacts est plus efficace en associant la microscopie et la microanalyse. Enfin, le rôle des approches expérimentales à ces questions est également discuté

Testing the New World: early modern chemistry and mineral prospection at colonial Jamestown, 1607–1610

Abstract: The paper presents new research on an assemblage of metallurgical crucibles used in the assay of minerals at colonial Jamestown. The aim of the study is to explore the range of chemical operations carried out at the site of the first permanent British settlement in America, for which little is known in the documents. The results show that the colonists used high-quality Hessian crucibles to perform tests on different types of complex polymetallic sulphides. This was done to (1) prospect for potential silver and copper ores and (2) to find suitable sources of zinc and tin to be alloyed into brass and bronze through cementation with imported copper offcuts. This study makes a relevant contribution to the growing field of the archaeology of early chemistry and mineral prospection as well as the archaeology of early European colonies in the New World. In particular, material culture can shed fresh light on how European settlers reacted to the many challenges of a new and unfamiliar natural environment and how they tried to make sense and exploit it for financial profit