An Overview on Institutionalism and Decentralized Decision-Making

Human actions, interactions and decisions should have a certain degree of predictability that can be obtained by establishing rules. Institutions, in general, are defined by sets of rules known by the public and applicable for the community. Their existence is essential for the economic activity, as it cannot develop in a vacuum. At the same time, the type and the quality of institutions make the difference in implementing economic aspirations of individuals and in supporting economic overall growth. Institutions provide a minimum of regulations that in conjunction with the particularities and the interests of individuals and communities become the foundation for economic, political and social decision-making processes.

Effects of the Wetlands Reserve Program on Waterfowl Carrying Capacity in the Rainwater Basin Region of South-Central Nebraska

The purpose of this Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) assessment was to evaluate the energetic contribution of the Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP) for migratory waterfowl using the Rainwater Basin Wetland Complex (RWB). The RWB is located in south central Nebraska and encompasses 6,150 mi2 that is dominated by row crop agriculture. Historically, \u3e 204,000 acres of playa wetlands were scattered across this region, but currently, just over 40,000 acres of wetlands remain. Annually, an estimated 12.4 million migratory waterfowl use this region during fall and/or spring migrations. Although used with less intensity as a fall stopover, approximately 9.8 million birds use the region during spring migration. This concentration of waterfowl coupled with reduced wetland resources is hypothesized to be causing intense competition between individuals for necessary energetic resources. We developed a bio-energetic model to evaluate the landscape’s capacity to provide energetic resources for migrating waterfowl. Two components are necessary to complete a bio-energetic model, the energetic requirements of the individuals using the region and the energy available in primary forage habitats. Once these values were determined the model allowed us to evaluate both landscape capacity and program specific contribution to regional waterfowl foraging capacity. In total the RWB needs to provide 24.1 billion kcal of energy for migratory waterfowl. Currently waste grain can meet all waterfowl energetic requirements using the RWB region. Although sufficient energetic resources exist, research has documented that food resources other than waste grain are required to meet all waterfowl nutritional requirements (essential amino acids, inorganic elements, and vitamins). We used previous research to estimate that 39% (9.5 billion) of the 24.1 billion kcal should be provided by wetland habitats. Prior to delivery of WRP, the RWB could provide 5.9 billion kcal of energy from wetland habitats. The WRP has supported restoration of approximately 3,050 acres of wetland and 1,050 acres of upland habitats in the RWB. These wetland acres represent an 8% increase in the total wetland base and provide an additional 789 million kcal of energy. The WRP program has increased total wetland forage capacity in the RWB by 13% compared to pre WRP conditions. Despite the additional WRP wetland acres, the RWB is still 3.0 billion kcal short of meeting migrating waterfowl wetland forage requirements. Analysis of average (2004), below average (2006), and above average (2007) precipitation years documented 8,900, 3,200, and 12,650 acres of flooded habitat, respectively. These flooded acres could provide approximately 13%, 4%, and 21% of the total wetland forage that would have been required. These results demonstrate that additional habitat from WRP and other conservation programs will be necessary to ensure sufficient habitat becomes available as a result of variable precipitation events. These results also show the importance of management of existing wetlands, including those tracts restored by WRP, to ensure optimal habitat conditions when wetlands become flooded. A hydrologic model documented that off-site hydrologic modifications can have a tremendous negative effect on RWB wetlands ability to pond water. In the future, additional resources will also be needed to restore hydrology to ensure that under average conditions RWB wetlands function

Motivations to participate in hunting and angling: a comparison among preferred activities and state of residence

Motivations for hunting and fishing extend beyond harvesting game and include social, psychological, emotional, and physical benefits. We used data from a web-based questionnaire to compare relationships between preferred hunting or fishing activity types, state of residence, and motivations of hunters and anglers across the central United States (U.S.). Exploratory factor analysis yielded four motivation factors: nature, social, food, and challenge. Differences in terms of state were negligible across all motivation factors (η2p \u3c .01), indicating similarity across states. Nature (η2p = .01) and social (η2p \u3c .01) factors were the first and second most important factors across activity types. We observed larger differences among the challenge (η2p = .03), and food (η2p = .15) factors, primarily driven by big game hunters. Big game hunters rated the food motivation factor greater than the other activity types. Overall, our results indicate that there might be a greater universality in these motivation factors among activity types and locations in the U.

Light Goose Conservation Order Effects on Nontarget Waterfowl Behavior and Energy Expenditure

When the Light Goose Conservation Order (LGCO) was established during 1999 in the Rainwater Basin of Nebraska, USA, LGCO activities were limited to 4 days/week and 16 public wetlands were closed to the LGCO to limit disturbance to non-target waterfowl during this energetically important time period. However, the effects of LGCO activities on waterfowl behavior and energy expenditure are relatively unknown in this critical waterfowl staging area. To evaluate LGCO effects on target and nontarget species, we paired wetlands open and closed to LGCO and recorded waterfowl behavior and hunter encounters during springs 2011 and 2012. We constructed hourly energy expenditure models based on behavior data collected for mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern pintails (A. acuta). In 2011, dabbling ducks (Anas spp.) spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands closed to hunting during early season when the majority of hunting encounters occurred; behaviors did not differ between hunt categories during late season when hunting activities subsided. However, in 2012, dabbling ducks spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands open to hunting during early and late seasons. We detected no differences in behaviors of lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens) or greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) between hunting categories in early season. Mallards had slightly greater energy expenditure on wetlands closed to hunting (x =38.94 +/- 0.31 kJ/bird/hr), compared with wetlands open to hunting (x = 37.87 +/- 0.32 kJ/bird/hr); therefore, greater energy spent by mallards cannot be attributed to hunting disturbance. We also detected no differences in dabbling duck behavior or energy expenditure between days open or closed to hunting in the region. A refuge system of wetlands closed to LGCO activities in the Rainwater Basin may be an important management strategy in providing reduced disturbance for non-target waterfowl species in some years

Light Goose Conservation Order Effects on Nontarget Waterfowl Behavior and Energy Expenditure

When the Light Goose Conservation Order (LGCO) was established during 1999 in the Rainwater Basin of Nebraska, USA, LGCO activities were limited to 4 days/week and 16 public wetlands were closed to the LGCO to limit disturbance to nontarget waterfowl during this energetically important time period. However, the effects of LGCO activities on waterfowl behavior and energy expenditure are relatively unknown in this critical waterfowl staging area. To evaluate LGCO effects on target and nontarget species, we paired wetlands open and closed to LGCO and recorded waterfowl behavior and hunter encounters during springs 2011 and 2012. We constructed hourly energy expenditure models based on behavior data collected for mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern pintails (A. acuta). In 2011, dabbling ducks (Anas spp.) spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands closed to hunting during early season when the majority of hunting encounters occurred; behaviors did not differ between hunt categories during late season when hunting activities subsided. However, in 2012, dabbling ducks spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands open to hunting during early and late seasons. We detected no differences in behaviors of lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens) or greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) between hunting categories in early season. Mallards had slightly greater energy expenditure on wetlands closed to hunting (x = 38.94 ± 0.31 kJ/bird/hr), compared with wetlands open to hunting (x = 37.87 ± 0.32 kJ/bird/hr); therefore, greater energy spent by mallards cannot be attributed to hunting disturbance. We also detected no differences in dabbling duck behavior or energy expenditure between days open or closed to hunting in the region. A refuge system of wetlands closed to LGCO activities in the Rainwater Basin may be an important management strategy in providing reduced disturbance for nontarget waterfowl species in some years

Light Goose Conservation Order Effects on Nontarget Waterfowl Behavior and Energy Expenditure

When the Light Goose Conservation Order (LGCO) was established during 1999 in the Rainwater Basin of Nebraska, USA, LGCO activities were limited to 4 days/week and 16 public wetlands were closed to the LGCO to limit disturbance to nontarget waterfowl during this energetically important time period. However, the effects of LGCO activities on waterfowl behavior and energy expenditure are relatively unknown in this critical waterfowl staging area. To evaluate LGCO effects on target and nontarget species, we paired wetlands open and closed to LGCO and recorded waterfowl behavior and hunter encounters during springs 2011 and 2012. We constructed hourly energy expenditure models based on behavior data collected for mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern pintails (A. acuta). In 2011, dabbling ducks (Anas spp.) spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands closed to hunting during early season when the majority of hunting encounters occurred; behaviors did not differ between hunt categories during late season when hunting activities subsided. However, in 2012, dabbling ducks spent more time feeding and less time resting in wetlands open to hunting during early and late seasons. We detected no differences in behaviors of lesser snow geese (Chen caerulescens) or greater white-fronted geese (Anser albifrons) between hunting categories in early season. Mallards had slightly greater energy expenditure on wetlands closed to hunting (x = 38.94 ± 0.31 kJ/bird/hr), compared with wetlands open to hunting (x = 37.87 ± 0.32 kJ/bird/hr); therefore, greater energy spent by mallards cannot be attributed to hunting disturbance. We also detected no differences in dabbling duck behavior or energy expenditure between days open or closed to hunting in the region. A refuge system of wetlands closed to LGCO activities in the Rainwater Basin may be an important management strategy in providing reduced disturbance for nontarget waterfowl species in some years

Low Reproductive Success of Mallards in a Grassland-Dominated Landscape in The Sandhills of Nebraska

The Sandhills of Nebraska comprise approximately 5,000,000 ha of native grassland interspersed with numerous groundwater-fed wetlands. A substantial population of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) nests in this region. Previous investigations of nest survival probability of ducks in the Sandhills have estimated surprisingly low rates of nest survival for a grassland-dominated landscape. These investigations were conducted on public lands and most nest searching took place near wetlands where activity of nest predators might be highest. We predicted that mallards would nest at varying distances from wetlands and that survival probability of a representative sample of duck nests would increase with distance from wetlands. We decoy-trapped and radio-marked 71 female mallards, 32 during the 2005 nesting season and 39 during the 2006 nesting season, and monitored their individual choice of nest habitats, their survival during the nesting season, and survival of their nests. Mallards nested in various habitats, both near and far from wetlands. Nest survival probability (Ö = 0.03, SE = 0.02) was low relative to other studies regardless of distance to wetlands. Survival of females during the nesting season (Ö = 0.84, SE = 0.08), however, was high relative to other studies. This pattern could have resulted from the combination of a diverse community of nest predators, few predators of nesting females, and a population of largely second year females that put little effort into nesting

Diets and Food Selection of Female Mallards and Blue-Winged Teal During Spring Migration

Waterfowl nutritional requirements and food availability at migration stopover habitats may differ from those at nesting or wintering areas. Although there is little information on factors that influence waterfowl diets and food selection during migration, we hypothesized that bird age and wetland density in the surrounding landscape would influence food selection. Thus, the objective of this study was to quantify mallard Anas platyrhynchos and blue-winged teal Anas discors diets during migration and evaluate effects of age and wetland density on waterfowl food selection. We collected 30 mallards and 29 blue-winged teal with food items present in esophagi from wetlands in south-central Nebraska during spring 2008 and 2009. Smartweed Polygonum spp. and barnyard grass Echinochloa spp. were the most common seeds found in both mallards and blue-winged teal, while Naididae and Chironomidae larvae were the most common invertebrates in mallard and blue-winged teal diets, respectively. Invertebrates were consumed by both species in greater proportion than available. Both mallards and blue-winged teal collected in wetland complexes selected some seeds over others, whereas birds in isolated wetlands foraged on foods in proportion to availability. After-hatch-year mallards also selected for some seeds over others, as compared with hatch-year birds, which foraged opportunistically on available foods. If after-hatch-year birds and birds in wetland complexes are able to be more selective in their diets relative to food availability at individual wetlands, they may be able to acquire and replenish lipids reserves more efficiently than hatch-year birds or birds in areas with lower wetland densities

Low Reproductive Success of Mallards in a Grassland-Dominated Landscape in The Sandhills of Nebraska

The Sandhills of Nebraska comprise approximately 5,000,000 ha of native grassland interspersed with numerous groundwater-fed wetlands. A substantial population of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) nests in this region. Previous investigations of nest survival probability of ducks in the Sandhills have estimated surprisingly low rates of nest survival for a grassland-dominated landscape. These investigations were conducted on public lands and most nest searching took place near wetlands where activity of nest predators might be highest. We predicted that mallards would nest at varying distances from wetlands and that survival probability of a representative sample of duck nests would increase with distance from wetlands. We decoy-trapped and radio-marked 71 female mallards, 32 during the 2005 nesting season and 39 during the 2006 nesting season, and monitored their individual choice of nest habitats, their survival during the nesting season, and survival of their nests. Mallards nested in various habitats, both near and far from wetlands. Nest survival probability (Ö = 0.03, SE = 0.02) was low relative to other studies regardless of distance to wetlands. Survival of females during the nesting season (Ö = 0.84, SE = 0.08), however, was high relative to other studies. This pattern could have resulted from the combination of a diverse community of nest predators, few predators of nesting females, and a population of largely second year females that put little effort into nesting

Constraints to Waterfowl Hunting by Hunters and Anglers in the Central United States

Waterfowl hunting participation has been on the decline since the mid‐1980s. We used a web‐based survey to better understand waterfowl hunting constraints (i.e., factors that limit or prohibit participation and enjoyment in leisure activities) among hunters and anglers that hunted or did not hunt waterfowl in the central United States. Forty‐eight constraint items were condensed into 10 constraint factors: Rules and Regulations, Waterfowl Identification, Cost, Waterfowl Hunting Skills, Land Access and Permissions, Interference by Other Hunters, Travel, Social, Waterfowl Populations, and Views of Others. We observed significant effects of both state of residence and activity type (i.e., frequent waterfowl hunters, sporadic waterfowl hunters, dissociated waterfowl hunters, non‐waterfowl hunters, and anglers) but the effect sizes were mostly small. There were few meaningful differences between constraints based on state of residence, indicating that the perception of constraints was largely consistent among the states included in our study. However, Social, Waterfowl Identification, and Waterfowl Hunting Skills constraints had greater differences, particularly between frequent waterfowl hunters and non‐waterfowl hunters. Our assessment of waterfowl constraints did not indicate a single constraint that was inhibiting (or prohibiting) participation of waterfowl hunting among waterfowl hunters or non‐waterfowl hunters. However, there were numerous constraints that were slightly to moderately limiting across all activity groups similarly, which suggests that constraints may act collectively to create a perception of an insurmountable impediment to participation to the individual