Le rôle de la protéine tau dans la mort des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine : cas du glaucome et de la maladie d’Alzheimer

La protéostasie désigne l’ensemble de stratégies développées par la cellule pour assurer la préservation de son protéome. Parmi celles-ci on peut citer le contrôle du repliement, de la concentration, et de la distribution des protéines. Les neurones en raison de leur importante activité métabolique représentent une population cellulaire particulièrement vulnérable à l’altération de la protéostasie, auquel cas on parle de protéinopathie. C’est notamment le cas des tauopathies et β-amyloidopathies, deux troubles neurodégénératifs, respectivement caractérisés par le dysfonctionnement de la protéine tau et du peptide amyloïde-β (Aβ). La protéine tau par le biais de son état de phosphorylation contrôle la stabilisation des microtubules, tandis que l’Aβ issu du clivage de l’APP (Amyloid Precursor Protein) serait impliqué dans la plasticité synaptique ; de telle sorte que l’altération du fonctionnement ou de la protéostasie de ces deux molécules engendre de graves troubles neuronaux. Le glaucome, principale cause de cécité irréversible au monde, est une neuropathie dégénérative caractérisée par la perte spécifique des somas des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGR) et de leurs axones dans le nerf optique. Bien que l’hypertension oculaire (HTO) soit le principal facteur de risque, on ignore la cause du glaucome raison pour laquelle il n’existe aucun remède contre la maladie. La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA), principale cause de démence, est caractérisée par la présence d’enchevêtrement neurofibrillaires formés de la protéine tau dans les neurones et de plaques séniles constitué d’agrégats d’Aβ dans le parenchyme cérébral. De manière surprenante, de nombreuses études révèlent que le glaucome et la MA présentent de nombreux points communs. C’est ainsi que des agrégats d’Aβ et de tau ont été trouvés dans les CGR de sujets atteints du glaucome. De même les sujets victimes de la MA présentent des déficits visuels et une dégénérescence des CGR. Vu l’importance de tau pour la physiologie neuronale et son rôle de médiateur de la toxicité d’Aβ, nous proposons l’hypothèse selon laquelle le dysfonctionnement de la protéine tau résulte en la perte des CGR. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse reposent sur deux modèles expérimentaux de neurodégénérescence : un modèle de glaucome dépendant de HTO chez les rats (modèle de Morrison) et le modèle 3xTg de la MA chez lequel les souris expriment des mutations dans la protéine tau et la voie Aβ (PS1M146V, APPSWE, TauP301L). Chez ces animaux nous avons prélevé la rétine, le nerf optique et le cerveau, sur lesquels nous avons étudié l’expression, la distribution, et la neurotoxicité de tau par western blot, immunohistochimie et PCR quantitative. Nos résultats révèlent que comparativement aux contrôles sains, les rétines malades (glaucome et MA) présentent une accumulation de tau anormalement phosphorylée, tandis que son expression génique reste inchangée. Cette hausse de tau est la conséquence de sa relocalisation vers le compartiment somatodendritique et le segment axonal intrarétinien des CGR, ceci au détriment des axones myélinisés inclus dans le nerf optique. Nos données montrent que les CGR 3xTg présentent une baisse drastique du transport axonal antérograde, indiquant que l’altération de la distribution de tau pourrait être à la base de cette perte de fonction axonale. Finalement, nous démontrons que l’accumulation de tau dans la rétine malade provoque éventuellement la mort des CGR. Au total, cette thèse démontre que les rétines atteintes du glaucome et de la MA présentent les manifestations cardinales des tauopathies à savoir l’accumulation, l’altération de la phosphorylation, et une distribution anormale de tau le tout culminant en la perte de fonction et la dégénérescence des CGR.Proteostasis refers to a set of strategies developed by the cell to ensure the maintenance of its proteome. These strategies include the control of protein folding, the amount, and the distribution of the proteins. Neurons are endowed with a high metabolic rate and, as such, are highly vulnerable to alterations in proteostasis, a situation referred to as proteinopathy. Tauopathies and β-amyloidopathies are two such instances wherein tau and amyloid-β, respectively, undergo dysfunction. Tau protein is a microtubule stabilising protein which function is regulated by its phosphorylation state, while Aβ a product of the cleavage of APP (Amyloid Precursor Protein) which is thought to be involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Therefore, functional or proteostatic alterations of these proteins result in harmful consequences for neurons. Glaucoma, the main cause of irreversible blindness, is a degenerative optic neuropathy characterised by the selective loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and their axons in the optic nerve. Although ocular hypertension (OHT) is the main risk factor for the development of glaucoma, the cause of the disease is still unknown. There is currently no cure for glaucoma and the only available treatment is to reduce OHT pharmacologically or surgically. Alzheimer’s disease, the main cause of dementia, is characterized by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles made of tau protein in neurons and senile plaques made of Aβ in the cerebral parenchyma. Intriguingly, several studies have shown that glaucoma and AD share several common features. For instance, aggregates of tau and Aβ have been described in the retina of glaucoma subjects. Likewise, AD patients show visual defects associated with RGC degeneration. Mindful of the importance of tau for neuronal physiology, and of its role as mediator of Aβ toxicity, we put forward the hypothesis that tau protein alterations leads to RGC dysfunction and death. vii The results presented in this thesis were based on two experimental models of neurodegeneration: a model of OHT-dependent glaucoma in rats leading to RGC death (Morrison model), and the 3xTg model of AD wherein mice overexpress mutant forms of tau and Aβ (PS1M146V, APPSWE, TauP301L). Using these animals, we collected retina, optic nerve, and brains which we used to study tau expression, distribution and neurotoxicity by western blot, immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. Our results show that, when compared to healthy controls, the diseased retina (glaucoma or AD) display accumulation of abnormally phosphorylated tau while its gene expression remains unchanged. The increase of retinal tau protein might result from the redistribution of the protein in the somatodendritic compartment and intraretinal axonal segment of RGCs at the expense of the extraocular axonal segment enclosed within the optic nerve. Our data also demonstrate that RGCs from 3xTg mice show a drastic reduction of anterograde axonal transport suggesting that missorted tau might underlie these functional deficits. Lastly, we demonstrate that tau accumulation in the diseased retina eventually promotes RGC death. Altogether, this thesis demonstrates that the glaucomatous and AD retinas present the cardinal features of tauopathies including tau accumulation, altered phosphorylation, and mislocalization which contribute to RGC dysfunction and subsequent death

Tau accumulation in the retina promotes early neuronal dysfunction and precedes brain pathology in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease

Abstract Background Tau is an axon-enriched protein that binds to and stabilizes microtubules, and hence plays a crucial role in neuronal function. In Alzheimer’s disease (AD), pathological tau accumulation correlates with cognitive decline. Substantial visual deficits are found in individuals affected by AD including a preferential loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), the neurons that convey visual information from the retina to the brain. At present, however, the mechanisms that underlie vision changes in these patients are poorly understood. Here, we asked whether tau plays a role in early retinal pathology and neuronal dysfunction in AD. Methods Alterations in tau protein and gene expression, phosphorylation, and localization were investigated by western blots, qPCR, and immunohistochemistry in the retina and visual pathways of triple transgenic mice (3xTg) harboring mutations in the genes encoding presenilin 1 (PS1M146 V), amyloid precursor protein (APPSwe), and tau (MAPTP301L). Anterograde axonal transport was assessed by intraocular injection of the cholera toxin beta subunit followed by quantification of tracer accumulation in the contralateral superior colliculus. RGC survival was analyzed on whole-mounted retinas using cell-specific markers. Reduction of tau expression was achieved following intravitreal injection of targeted siRNA. Results Our data demonstrate an age-related increase in endogenous retinal tau characterized by epitope-specific hypo- and hyper-phosphorylation in 3xTg mice. Retinal tau accumulation was observed as early as three months of age, prior to the reported onset of behavioral deficits, and preceded tau aggregation in the brain. Intriguingly, tau build up occurred in RGC soma and dendrites, while tau in RGC axons in the optic nerve was depleted. Tau phosphorylation changes and missorting correlated with substantial defects in anterograde axonal transport that preceded RGC death. Importantly, targeted siRNA-mediated knockdown of endogenous tau improved anterograde transport along RGC axons. Conclusions Our study reveals profound tau pathology in the visual system leading to early retinal neuron damage in a mouse model of AD. Importantly, we show that tau accumulation promotes anterograde axonal transport impairment in vivo, and identify this response as an early feature of neuronal dysfunction that precedes cell death in the AD retina. These findings provide the first proof-of-concept that a global strategy to reduce tau accumulation is beneficial to improve axonal transport and mitigate functional deficits in AD and tauopathies

Reduced progranulin increases tau and α-synuclein inclusions and alters mouse tauopathy phenotypes via glucocerebrosidase

Abstract Comorbid proteinopathies are observed in many neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), increase with age, and influence clinical outcomes, yet the mechanisms remain ill-defined. Here, we show that reduction of progranulin (PGRN), a lysosomal protein associated with TDP-43 proteinopathy, also increases tau inclusions, causes concomitant accumulation of α-synuclein and worsens mortality and disinhibited behaviors in tauopathy mice. The increased inclusions paradoxically protect against spatial memory deficit and hippocampal neurodegeneration. PGRN reduction in male tauopathy attenuates activity of β-glucocerebrosidase (GCase), a protein previously associated with synucleinopathy, while increasing glucosylceramide (GlcCer)-positive tau inclusions. In neuronal culture, GCase inhibition enhances tau aggregation induced by AD-tau. Furthermore, purified GlcCer directly promotes tau aggregation in vitro. Neurofibrillary tangles in human tauopathies are also GlcCer-immunoreactive. Thus, in addition to TDP-43, PGRN regulates tau- and synucleinopathies via GCase and GlcCer. A lysosomal PGRN–GCase pathway may be a common therapeutic target for age-related comorbid proteinopathies