From textiles to humans: the role of textile moisture transfer properties on human physiological and perceptual responses

Clothing provides the body with a protective barrier from environmental factors, such as rain, snow, wind and solar radiation. Beside this imperative protective function, the interaction between clothing and the human body has implications in terms of temperature regulation and comfort. Specifically, wetness at the skin-clothing interface represents one of the highest sources of discomfort when wearing clothing, which could even contribute to reductions in human performance and, in extreme environments, impact human health. To maximise heat and mass transfer through the clothing barrier, the textile and clothing industry constantly works on apparel innovations. Textile test methods allow assessments of objective improvements in material performance; however it is often unknown whether improvements at material level have an impact on human physiological and/or perceptual responses. Therefore, the aim of this research was to adopt an integrative paradigm in which textile and clothing moisture transfer parameters are instrumentally characterised and, subsequently, assessed in human physiological as well as sensorial experiments. In this thesis, the current literature review focuses on the interactions occurring between the thermal environment, the human body and the clothes worn by the person (Chapter 1). The test methods applied to evaluate textile and clothing parameters are reviewed and discussed (Chapter 1). This is followed by an outlined of the methodological developments adopted in the current research to measure human responses when interacting with textiles and clothing, both during rest and exercise conditions (Chapter 2). In the first laboratory study (Chapter 3), a skin regional experiment (fabrics applied on a restricted body area) was conducted to study the role of fabric thickness and fibre type on human cutaneous wetness perception, in condition of static fabric contact with the skin. In the same study, the approach adopted to characterise fabric moisture content, i.e. absolute (same µL of water per area (cm2)) versus relative (same µL of water per unit of fabric volume (cm3)) was studied and the implications that fabric total saturation has on skin wetness perception were explored. The results showed the role of fabric thickness as major determinant of fabric absorption capacity and also wetness perception. In fabrics presenting same saturation percentage (same water content per volume) a positive relation between fabric thickness and wetness perception was observed and this was independent of fibre type. When applying the same relative to volume water content (same saturation percentage) thicker fabrics were perceived wetter than the thinner ones. Conversely, when applying the same absolute water amount, thicker fabrics were perceived dryer compared to thinner fabrics, given that thinner fabrics were more saturated. These findings indicate that human wetness perception responses between fabrics with different volume/thickness parameters should be interpreted in light of their saturation parameters rather than considering the absolute moisture content. In the same study, it was observed that the weight of the fabric in wet state can also modulate wetness-related perceptual responses. Specifically, heavier fabrics were perceived wetter than lighter ones, despite using the same fabric and applying the same level of physical moisture. This phenomenon was explained in light of the synthetic nature of wetness perception, specifically through the effect of fabric weight on cutaneous perceived pressure which was associated with higher physical wetness in fabrics. In a following skin regional experiment (inner forearm), the individual and combined role of fabric surface texture (contact points with the skin) and fabric thickness on wetness perception as well as stickiness sensation was studied (Chapter 4). In contrast to Study 1, in this experiment, fabrics were examined in dynamic contact conditions with the skin. It was observed that, when pre-wetted (same relative water content, corresponding to 50% of their maximum absorption capacity), fabric materials with a smoother surface (higher contact) resulted in greater skin wetness perception and stickiness sensation compared to the rougher fabric surfaces. Interestingly, the power of wetness perception prediction became stronger when including, together with stickiness, fabric thickness, indicating the important role of these two parameters when developing next to skin clothing. In the same dynamic application, to assess whether texture data can be used as predictors of fabric stickiness sensation, fabric surface texture was quantified using the Kawabata Evaluation System. The results showed that the Kawabata Evaluation System failed to predict stickiness sensation of wet fabrics commonly assumed to be associated with fabric texture, thus a different way to define fabric texture may be needed in order to represent this link (stickiness and texture). Moving from this first research stage, where the impact of textile properties on human perceptual responses was investigated using a mechanistic approach, in the second research phase a more applied approach was adopted. The aim was to study textile parameters and clothing performance in conditions of exercise-induced sweat production as opposed to laboratory-induced wetness conditions. Before investigating human sensorial responses in transient exercise conditions, in Study 3 (Chapter 5) we addressed potential biases which can occur when sensorial scores of temperature, wetness and discomfort are repeatedly reported in transient exercise conditions. We pointed out that, when repeatedly reported, previous sensorial scores can be set by the participants as reference values and the subsequent score may be given based on the previous point of reference, the latter phenomenon leading to a bias which we defined as anchoring bias . Indeed, the findings showed that subsequent sensorial scores are prone to anchoring biases and that the bias consists in a systematically higher magnitude of sensation expressed, as compared to when reported a single time only. As such, the study allowed recognition and mitigation of the identified error, in order to improve the methodological rigour of the following research involving sensorial data in transient exercise conditions. Following from Study 2, where the impact of stickiness sensation on wetness perception was highlighted, in the fourth laboratory study (Chapter 6) we aimed to investigate the combined effect of garment contact area, sweat content and moisture saturation percentage, in conditions of exercise-induced sweat production. Furthermore, the influence that both stickiness sensation and wetness perception have on wear discomfort was studied. The findings showed that fabric saturation percentage mainly affected stickiness sensation of wet fabrics, dominating the impact of fabric contact area and absolute sweat content. On the contrary, wetness perception was not different between garments. This indicated that stickiness sensation and wetness perception are not always strongly related; as such they should both be measured and considered individually. Texture and stickiness sensation presented the best relation with wear discomfort at baseline and during exercise, respectively. Due to the impact of fabric moisture saturation percentage on stickiness sensation and wear discomfort, identified in Study 1 and Study 2, in Study 5 (Chapter 7) we aimed to quantifying temporal and regional sweat absorption in cotton and synthetic upper body garments. Sweat production was induced in male athletes during 50 minutes of running exercise, performed in a warm environment. Considerable variations in sweat absorption were observed over time and between garment regions. Based on these data, we provided temporal and spatial sweat absorption maps which could guide the process of clothing development, using a sweat mapping approach. In Study 5 a destructive gravimetric method was developed to quantify local garment sweat absorption. While this currently is the only methodology that permits direct and analytical measurements of garment regional sweat absorption, the latter approach is time-consuming and expensive, therefore of limited applicability. As such, in study 6 (Chapter 8), it was assessed whether infrared thermography could be used as an indirect method to estimate garment regional sweat absorption, right after exercise, in a non-destructive fashion. Spatial and temporal sweat absorption data, obtained from Study 5, were correlated with spatial and temporal temperature data (also obtained from study 5) measured with an infrared thermal camera. The data suggested that infrared thermography is a good tool to qualitatively predict regional sweat absorption in garments at separate individual time points; however temporal and quantitative changes are not predicted well, due to a moisture threshold causing a temperature limit above which variations in sweat content cannot be discriminated by temperature changes any further. In conclusion, the textile parameters identified in this PhD research as major determinants of fabric absorption capacity and related perceptions are thickness/volume, wet weight, moisture saturation percentage, surface area and surface texture. These textile factors influence wetness-related sensations and perceptions over time, in relation to the over-time changes in human thermophysiological responses (such as metabolic rate and sweating) and to the environmental conditions the person is exposed to. This clearly shows that in a multifactorial system such as the environment-human-clothing one, the strength of different cutaneous moisture-related stimuli, triggered by various textiles parameters, should be considered. Finally, this indicates that, to obtain a better understanding of clothing performance and its impact on human sensation

Human wetness perception in relation to textile water absorption parameters under static skin contact

Skin-wetness-perception (WP) greatly affects thermal and sensorial discomfort in clothing and as such is of great interest to the clothing industry. Following neurophysiological studies of WP, this study looks at textile parameters affecting WP. Twenty-four fabrics, varying in thickness, fibre-type and absorption capacity were studied. Using twelve participants (males/females), the WP induced was studied in four wetness states: 1:Dry; 2:ABS, all having the same absolute water content of 2400μl per sample (= 0.024μl·mm-2); 3:100REL, saturated with water to their individual absorption capacity; 4:50REL, to 50% of the value in 3. As total absorption capacity was highly correlated (r=0.99) to fabric thickness, condition 3 and 4 were equivalent to having the same water content per volume of textile, i.e. 0.8 and 0.4μl·mm-3 respectively. Samples were applied to the upper back, statically to minimise the contribution of surface roughness/friction. WP was highly correlated to drop in skin temperature induced by the wet fabric, and increased with application pressure of the fabric. No effect of fibre-type was observed. In REL, with equal μl·mm-3, WP showed a positive correlation to total fabric watercontent-per-area (μl·mm-2), and thus also to thickness, given the correlation between the latter two, with saturation above 1.5μl·mm-2. In ABS on the other hand, with equal μl·mm-2, and thus with relative water content (μl·mmμl·mm-3) inversely proportional to thickness, WP was also inversely proportional to thickness. Thus WP showed opposing responses depending on the wetting type, indicating that the methodology of manipulating water content should be selected in relation to the product end-use

The sit up test to exhaustion as a test for muscular endurance evaluation

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS The aim of this study was to examine the sit up test to exhaustion as a field test for muscular endurance evaluation in a sample of sedentary people of both sexes. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed. Three-hundred-eighty-one participants volunteered for the study (28.5 \ub1 10.0 years; 168.2 \ub1 8.9 cm; 65.1 \ub1 11.1 kg), of which 194 males (27.5 \ub1 10.2 years; 173.6 \ub1 7.0 cm; 71.2 \ub1 5.2 kg) and 187 females (29.6 \ub1 10.1 years; 162.6 \ub1 7.1 cm; 58.7 \ub1 8.9 kg). Each subject voluntarily and randomly performed: a sit up test (SUT), a push up test (PUT), and a free weight squat test (ST), all till exhaustion. A multiple regression analysis was adopted for data analysis. Subsequently a percentile model for muscle endurance was developed. The 25th, 50th, and 75th percentile were identified as upper limit for low muscular endurance, average muscular endurance, and lower limit for high muscular endurance, respectively. RESULTS: Considering the sit up test as the dependent variable, the coefficients (R(2) = 0.23; r = 0.49; p < 0.001), and (R(2) = 0.31; r = 0.57; p < 0.001) emerged from a multiple regression analysis applied with respect to the push up test and the squat test, respectively. Gender stratification showed regression coefficients of (R(2) = 0.19; r = 0.44; p < 0.001) for SUT vs. PUT, and (R(2) = 0.30; r = 0.56; p < 0.001) for SUT vs. ST in male; and (R(2) = 0.23; r = 0.49; p < 0.001) for SUT vs. PUT, and (R(2) = 0.34; r = 0.59; p < 0.001) for SUT vs. ST in female. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: The SUT showed low inter-relation with the other proposed tests indicating that the adoption of a single test for the global evaluation of muscle endurance is not the optimal approach. Moreover, the SUT was found to be inexpensive, safe, and appropriate for core muscle endurance measurement for both male and female

The interaction between temperature and hypoxia on the rate of neuromuscular fatigue development

The interaction between temperature and hypoxia on the rate of neuromuscular fatigue developmen

Human wetness perception of textile materials under dynamic skin contact

Human wetness perception of textile materials under dynamic skin contac

Comfort in clothing – Determining the critical factors

Comfort is often considered in relation to a single factor causing discomfort, be it environmental, physical, physiological or perceptual. But rarely does one factor actually fully influence how comfortable an individual feels. Even within the clothing system numerous factors; fit, material, design, etc, can affect an in-dividual’s comfort perception. Currently the understanding of the impact of individual fabric properties on wear comfort is limited. This paper will consider the various interactions that occur within the clothing sys-tem that contribute to wearer comfort. The dynamic interaction of the clothing material with large areas of the skin surface changes the perception of wetness felt by the user. To understand how sensation of wetness per-ception is influenced by textile parameters, a number of textile samples with different thickness, fiber type, and surface texture, were tested. They were evaluated in Static (upper back) and Dynamic (inner forearm) contact with the skin, under both low and high application pressure. Wetness perception and stickiness sensa-tion (tactile cue) were measured with ordinal perception scales and local skin temperature (thermal cue) by thermocouples. Under Static contact, wetness perception in fabrics containing the same amount of moisture per volume was positively related to fabric thickness (r2 = 0.87). Under Dynamic, higher wetness perception was associated with greater stickiness sensation (r2 = 0.68), occurring from differences in fabric surface tex-ture. Under Dynamic fabric thickness did not correlate with wetness perception directly, however when com-bined with stickiness sensation it provided a strong predictive power (r2 = 0.86). In both Static and Dynamic conditions, greater wetness perception (p 0.05). Fabric thickness and surface texture properties trigger thermal and tactile inputs, respectively, underpinning skin wetness perception in static and dynamic clothing applications. Additionally, fabric weight and clothing fit could cause changes in fabric-to-skin pressure, which represents another tactile sensory mo-dality contributing to skin wetness perception. Consideration of these factors could aid the design of clothing and fabric products, particularly office and vehicle seating, towards optimising comfort

The interaction between environmental temperature and hypoxia on central and peripheral fatigue during high-intensity dynamic knee extension

This study investigated causative factors behind the expression of different interaction types during exposure to multi-stressor environments. Neuromuscular fatigue rates and time to exhaustion (TTE) were investigated in active males (n=9) exposed to three climates (5°C,50%-rh/23°C,50%-rh/42°C,70%-rh) at two inspired oxygen fractions (0.209/0.125 FIO2; equivalent attitude=4100 m). After 40-mins rest in the environmental conditions, participants performed constant workload (high-intensity) knee extension exercise until exhaustion, with brief assessments of neuromuscular function every 110-s. Independent exposure to cold, heat and hypoxia significantly (p0.198). In contrast, combined exposure to hypoxic-heat reduced TTE by 609-s, showing a significant antagonistic interaction (p=0.003) similarly supported by an increased rate of peripheral fatigue development (increased by 8.3%.min-1). A small decline (<0.4%.min-1) in voluntary muscle activation was only observed in thermoneutral-normoxia. In conclusion, interaction type is influenced by the impact magnitude of the individual stressors' effect on exercise capacity, whereby the greater the stressors impact, the greater the probability that one stressor will be abolished by the other. This indicates humans respond to severe and simultaneous physiological strains based on a 'worst strain takes precedence' principle

The use of optimised heating trousers and the role of the blood flow on the reduction in muscle temperature post warm up

The use of optimised heating trousers and the role of the blood flow on the reduction in muscle temperature post warm u

The interaction between cooling and hypoxia on the rate of peripheral and central fatigue development of the knee extensors

The interaction between cooling and hypoxia on the rate of peripheral and central fatigue development of the knee extensor

Localized and systemic variations in central motor drive at different local skin and muscle temperatures

This study investigated the ability to sustain quadriceps central motor drive while subjected to localized heat and metaboreceptive feedback from the contralateral leg. Eight active males each completed two counter-balanced trials, in which muscle temperature (Tm) of a single-leg (TEMP-LEG) was altered to 29.4 (COOL) or 37.6°C (WARM), while the contralateral leg (CL-LEG) remained thermoneutral; 35.3 and 35.2°C Tm in COOL and WARM respectively. To activate metaboreceptive feedback, participants first performed one 120-s isometric maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) of the knee extensors in the TEMP-LEG, immediately followed by post-exercise muscle ischemia (PEMI) via femoral blood flow occlusion. To assess central motor drive of a remote muscle group immediately following PEMI, another 120-s MVC was subsequently performed in the CL-LEG. Voluntary muscle activation (VA) was assessed using the twitch interpolation method. Perceived mental effort and limb discomfort were also recorded. In a cooled muscle, a significant increase in mean force output and mean VA (force, p0.68, limb discomfort, p=0.73). The present findings suggest that elevated local Tsk and Tm can increase limb discomfort and decrease central motor drive, but this does not limit systemic motor activation of a thermoneutral muscle group