External morphological structures observed.

<p>View frontal of head, (a) <i>S</i>. <i>surinama</i> and (b) <i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i>. View frontal of scape, (c) <i>S</i>. <i>cyanea</i> and (d) <i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i>. Scutum in lateral view, (e) <i>S</i>. <i>surinama</i> and (f) <i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i>.</p

Species tree generated by *BEAST.

<p>Bayesian posterior probabilities indicated above or below branches. Branch colors follow <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119151#pone.0119151.g003" target="_blank">Fig. 3</a>.</p

Map showing collection sites.

<p>The numbers refer to the sampling locality codes shown in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119151#pone.0119151.t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a>.</p

Chronogram with divergence times generated by BEAST.

<p>Divergence times between clades are annotated on each node and standard deviations [95% of high posterior density (HPD)] are represented by the blue bars.</p

Biogeographical analysis using Bayesian Binary MCMC, showing only the most likely states at each node.

<p>Biogeographical analysis using Bayesian Binary MCMC, showing only the most likely states at each node.</p

Phylogeny of <i>Synoeca</i> reconstructed by Bayesian analysis.

<p>Shown is the consensus tree resulting from analyses based on 1829 bp from 16S, CytB, COI and wingless. Maximum likelihood (ML) analysis resulted in the same topology. Numbers above or below branches indicate Bayesian posterior probabilities (first number) and ML bootstrap values (second number). Numbers in parentheses indicate the collection sites as shown in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0119151#pone.0119151.g001" target="_blank">Fig. 1</a>. Abbreviations for biogeographical units are as follows: AM, Amazonian forest; AM/C, Amazonian forest and Cerrado; NAF, North Atlantic forest; CAF, Central Atlantic forest; MA, Middle America; ESA, Eastern portion of South America.</p

Molecular Phylogeny and Historical Biogeography of the Neotropical Swarm-Founding Social Wasp Genus <i>Synoeca</i> (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

<div><p>The Neotropical Region harbors high biodiversity and many studies on mammals, reptiles, amphibians and avifauna have investigated the causes for this pattern. However, there is a paucity of such studies that focus on Neotropical insect groups. <i>Synoeca</i> de Saussure, 1852 is a Neotropical swarm-founding social wasp genus with five described species that is broadly and conspicuously distributed throughout the Neotropics. Here, we infer the phylogenetic relationships, diversification times, and historical biogeography of <i>Synoeca</i> species. We also investigate samples of the disjoint populations of <i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i> that occur in both northwestern parts of South America through Central American and the Brazilian Atlantic rainforests. Our results showed that the interspecific relationships for <i>Synoeca</i> could be described as follows: (<i>S</i>. <i>chalibea </i>+ <i>S</i>. <i>virginea</i>) + (<i>S</i>. <i>cyanea</i> + (<i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i>/<i>S</i>. <i>surinama</i>)). Notably, samples of <i>S</i>. <i>septentrionalis</i> and <i>S</i>. <i>surinama</i> collected in the Atlantic Forest were interrelated and may be the result of incomplete lineage sorting and/or mitochondrial introgression among them. Our Bayesian divergence dating analysis revealed recent Plio-Pleistocene diversification in <i>Synoeca</i>. Moreover, our biogeographical analysis suggested an Amazonian origin of <i>Synoeca</i>, with three main dispersal events subsequently occurring during the Plio-Pleistocene.</p></div

Ecological niche modelling showing the potential geographical distribution of <i>P</i>. <i>rustica</i> in different periods and stability models.

<p>In “A” Current, “B” and “C” Mid-Holocene, “D” and “E” Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and “F” Last Interglacial period (LIG). The stability models (G to I) refer to the overlap of the potential distribution maps using two Global Climate Models combined (I) and each GCM separately (G and H). In “I”, the red points represent the localities sampled in the present study and white points represent other localities obtained from collections and museums. The legends indicate the probability of suitable conditions for the species. Abbreviations: CD = <i>Chapada Diamantina</i>; AUC = area under the curve.</p

Analysis of Molecular Variance (AMOVA) for three hierarchical levels, testing the differentiation between the <i>P</i>. <i>rustica</i> groups.

<p>The analysis was run using the four concatenated mtDNA genes and eight SSR loci.</p

Ecological niche modelling showing the potential geographical distribution of <i>P</i>. <i>rustica</i> in different periods and stability models.

<p>In “A” Current, “B” and “C” Mid-Holocene, “D” and “E” Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and “F” Last Interglacial period (LIG). The stability models (G to I) refer to the overlap of the potential distribution maps using two Global Climate Models combined (I) and each GCM separately (G and H). In “I”, the red points represent the localities sampled in the present study and white points represent other localities obtained from collections and museums. The legends indicate the probability of suitable conditions for the species. Abbreviations: CD = <i>Chapada Diamantina</i>; AUC = area under the curve.</p