Masculinity and femininity as categories and constructs present in everyday life : an introduction

"The subject of this monograph relates to stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. Its aim is an attempt to describe the phenomena of masculinity and femininity and the role they can play in selected contexts of everyday life. Both masculinity and femininity are important biological, social and cultural categories and constructs. They possess an individual and collective meaning. In a self-perception process, women and men describe and define themselves in a context of femininity and masculinity. Women desire to perceive themselves as “feminine”, and men as “masculine”

Beauty and social influence. Adonization and its correlates

The article attempts to describe adonization, a specific tactic for exerting influence which employs physical attraction, as well as its determinants. The article presents a proprietary model of determinants and motivational mechanisms which constitute the basis of the attitude toward adonization. A cycle of 3 studies on individual determinants for the attitude toward adonization was described. Results of study 1 (50 women and 50 men) confirmed that male gender, psychological masculinity, narcissism, Machiavellianism and high self-monitoring were correlates of a positive attitude toward adonization. Study 2 (36 women and 36 men) showed that extraversion was the predictor of a positive attitude toward adonization of men and women and that agreeableness was the predictor of a less positive attitude of women. In Study 3 (91 women and 88 men aged 18–63) it was established that there were no differences in the attitude toward adonization in young and middle-aged men. Comparison among young and middle-aged women proved that younger women had a more positive attitude toward adonization in the cognitive and in the affective components than older women

Fear of Success among Students – Range and Predictors

The paper presents the results of research into fear of success in Polish students. The participants were 208 university students of psychology, education, political science, and physical education at the School of Physical Education. Horner’s projective method (1972, 1978) was used. The analysed variables were sex, study major, average grades, locus of control, Machiavellianism, and masculinity and femininity. Fear of success was observed in more than half of the investigated students – 62% of men and 48% of women. Multiple regression analyses showed that masculinity and Machiavellianism were the best predictors of fear of success. Fear of success occurred the least frequently in the students of physical education. The regression model explained 11% of the fear of success variables

Power based on physical attractiveness and power based on financial resources - the influence tactics used by partners in marriage

"Power is an omnipresent phenomenon. It can be perceived in the public sphere, in trade and political organizations; as well as in the private area, in intimate relationships between two people who are in love with each other, between a husband and wife, parents and children, and also between siblings. In psychology power is defined as the capacity to influence the kind and quality of outcomes of others’ behaviour; as well as control over the resources which provide a power-holder with the potential to exert influence, that is to say, to alter others’ behaviour (Cartwright and Zender, 1968; Kipnis, 1972; Fiske, 1993; Anderson and Berdahl, 2002; et al.)"

Shyness and Gender. Physical, Emotional, Cognitive, Behavioural Consequences and Strategies of Coping with Shyness by Women and Men of Different Gender Identity

This article presents research into shyness from the perspective of gender and gender identity. The research comprised a group of 240 Polish women and men (120 women and 120 men) in the period of early adulthood (20–25 years of age). The Stanford Shyness Questionnaire (Zimbardo, 1994) and Bem Sex Role Inventory (Polish version, Kuczyńska, 1992) were used. Gender differences and differences between people of different gender identity in experiencing shyness were found, including: frequency, causes, consequences (physical, emotional, cognitive, behavioural) and strategies of coping with shyness

Masculinity, femininity, self-appeal, strategies of self-presentation and styles of interpersonal functioning in transsexual women

Aim: The aim of this study was to explore potential differences in gender identity and interpersonal functioning styles between transsexual and non-transsexual women. Method: The following tests were used: Bem Sex Role Inventory (Polish version), Self-Appeal Scale, Interpersonal Styles Scale, and the Strategies of Self-Presentation Questionnaire. The study group consisted of 32 adult transwomen, mean age 35.09 years. The control group consisted of 32 adult cissexual women (mean age 31.69 years) selected according to the age criterion to match the study group. Results: Transsexual women scored higher than non-transsexual women on the femininity scale, in the use of the maintaining-overprotective style, submissive-dependent style and on conformism scales. Nontranssexual women scored higher on the directive-autocratic style, aggressive-sadistic style, competitivenarcissistic style, and partner attractiveness and self-promotion scales. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the groups on masculinity, adonization, interpersonal attractiveness, partner appreciation, self-depreciation, the withdrawing-masochistic style, the rebellious-suspicious style, self-acceptance/complacency, pessimism/helplessness/cry for help, the lie scale, the friendly-cooperative style and the resourcefulness/realism/autonomy scales. Discussion: The study revealed that transsexual women experience themselves and the surrounding world more in accord with the stereotypes of what is feminine than non-transsexual women. This applies to their interpersonal functioning. Styles that they employ to a higher degree usually do not contain components of dominance and a need for autonomy but rather a need for affiliation and considerateness. Conclusions: Differences in gender identity and interpersonal functioning between transwomen and cissexual women might suggest that they are moderated, among other things, by the fact that the former were being raised as males and because they belong to a socially stigmatized group. It seems that transwomen function more in accordance with the stereotypes of femininity than cissexual women

Love attitudes, psychological femininity and masculinity, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and emotional intelligence of rejectors in close relationships

background The aim of the study was to determine the discrepancies between people who tend to abandon their partners in close relationships and people who are involved in longterm relationships in: love attitudes (Ludus – game playing love, Eros – passionate love, Storge – friendship love, Pragma – practical love, Mania – possessive love, Agape – altruistic love), psychological femininity and masculinity, Machiavellianism, narcissism, and emotional intelligence. participants and procedure The subjects included 60 adults who reject their partners in close relationships and a reference group of 60 adults who were involved in a close relationship. The participants had qualified as rejectors when they: described themselves as “rejectors”; declared that they were not in a romantic relationship or were in one that lasts no longer than one year, claimed that in their relationships history they had rejected their partners more often compared to when they had been rejected. The measures were used: The Love Attitudes Scale, Sex Role Inventory, Narcissistic Personality Inventory, Test of Machiavellianism MACH IV, and Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire. results The results showed that rejecters score higher on Ludus and Pragma but lower on Agape and Eros, in comparison with participants from the reference group. There is correlation between masculinity and the number of partners who were rejected by rejecters. conclusions Love attitudes Ludus and Pragma predicted being a rejector in close relationships

Shyness, self-presentation, adonization, and influence tactics in close relationships

background Empirical research reveals the difficulties that shy people must face as part of their social functioning and attaches a pejorative connotation to shyness in the process of establishing and maintaining interpersonal relations. The purpose of the study was to investigate certain aspects of social functioning of shy people: the preferred self-presentation styles, readiness to adopt adonization and influence tactics in intimate relationships. participants and procedure The study was performed on a group of 234 participants (113 females and 121 males), aged 18 to 35 years (M = 24.29). The following questionnaires were used: the Revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale, the Self-Presentation Questionnaire, the Questionnaire for Measuring the Attitude toward Adonization, and the Influence in Close Relationships between Women and Men Questionnaire. results The study found that shy people use self-promotion less frequently than non-shy persons and they tend to adopt selfdepreciation more often compared to non-shy individuals. Further, a high level of shyness implies a less pronounced tendency to use adonization but a greater readiness to employ hard social influence tactics in close relationships: Threats and violence, Silent treatment and sulking and Complaining and arguing. conclusions Correlations between shyness, self-presentation styles, adonization and influence tactics in close relationships emphasize the role of this disposition in generating social behaviors. Shyness has a negative impact on an individual’s social functioning and relations with other people. The negative consequences of shyness are particularly conspicuous in the behavior of men

Contingencies of Self-Worth and Global Self-Esteem Among College Women: The Role of Masculine and Feminine Traits Endorsement

The study examined the relative importance of seven contingencies of self-worth of Polish college women's (appearance, others' approval, competition, academic competencies, family support, virtue, God's love), as well as the associations between preference for particular contingencies and global self-esteem. Additionally, the predictive role of the self-assignment of masculine and feminine traits for both contingencies of self-worth and global self-esteem was investigated. The participants were one hundred and ninety-four Polish women in emerging adulthood (aged from 19 to 26; M = 21.36; SD = 1.67). Participants provided self-reports of self-ascription of masculine and feminine traits, the contingencies of self-worth, and self-esteem. Obtained results showed that the family support contingency of self-worth was the most preferred one, followed by virtue contingent self-worth, academic competencies, competition, and appearance contingencies of selfesteem, while the less preferred contingencies were: others' approval and God's love. Appearance and others’ approval contingencies of self-worth correlated negatively with self-esteem. Masculine traits were positively linked to competition contingency of self-worth, but negatively to physical appearance self-worth contingency and others’ approval self-worth contingency, whereas feminine traits were positively correlated with both physical appearance self-worth contingency and others’ approval self-worth contingency. The findings showed the positive associations between selfascription of traits regarded to be masculine and self-esteem, and a lack of significant associations between self-description of feminine traits and self-esteem. Structural equation modeling demonstrated predictive role of masculine traits for self-esteem when feminine traits’ selfascription and contingencies of self-worth were controlled

Psychological masculinity, femininity and tactics of manipulation in patients with borderline personality disorder

Aim. The aim of the study was a relation between the borderline personality disorder and psychological gender, and tendency to use various manipulation tactics in everyday life and therapeutic context. Methods. The study used the Psychological Gender Inventory (A. Kuczyńska, 1992), and self-developed questionnaire for evaluating the tendency to use manipulation tactics and a survey evaluating manipulation in therapeutic contact. The studied group included: 30 patients with diagnosed BPD, 30 people a control group and 125 therapists. Results. The study of psychological gender showed that in the patient group the level of masculinity was significantly lower. Results showed that 88% of the therapists participating in the study confirmed that they have experienced manipulation attempts from patients. The therapists assessed the tendency of patients to use manipulation tactics as greater than it was declared by the patients themselves. When compared to the control group, the patients indeed demonstrated a greater tendency to use the tactics of begging, threatening and threatening to break a close relationship and a lesser tendency to use the tactic of seduction. In the view of the therapists, during therapy patients most often used the tactics of lying and guilt induction. Conclusions. Manipulation is frequently used by BPD patients both in everyday life and in therapeutic contact. The most common reasons for using manipulation is to obtain benefits and to avoid negative consequences. It is necessary to conduct further research in this field and educate those who work with psychiatric patients in order to make them develop the ability to detect manipulation attempts and cope with such tactics