The nature of design and style in music

Thesis (M.A.)--Boston University, 1939. This item was digitized by the Internet Archive

An investigation of key-tone matching with children and adults

Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston UniversityPLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at [email protected]. Thank you.A musical task involving pitch discrimination was developed and taught to children and adults. The task was a single tone matching procedure employing three organ tones and keys in the "do, re, mi" configuration, in which individually presented ("heard") tones, served as stimuli controlling selection of keys for tone-matching responses. The design of the study included an exploratory phase, in which sequences of material were manipulated and behavioral (performance) characteristics investigated, and a control experiment, in which reinforcing stimuli (feedback contingencies) were manipulated. Data describing errors as a function of trials and other relationships between stimuli and response events were collected. These were plotted in the form of individual cumulative records and stimuli-response tracking charts, respectively. Pre-adult subjects ranging in age from four to eleven years were recruited from an academic and professional population attending a private school. Adult subjects (ranging in age from 24 to 78 years) were selected on the basis of their claims to (a) not being "musical, " (b) not being able to read music, (c) not having any recent or prolonged music study. All subjects worked at the keyboard of a specially adapted organ by which tones were presented, responses recorded, and feedback provided. The study was primarily concerned with the following questions: 1. Would this key-tone matching task be "easy" or "difficult"? 2. Could performance be improved by employing the objective procedures described? 3. What behavioral characteristics could be revealed by the use of such procedures? Data from the exploratory phase (conducted with youth subjects) indicated that matching "do, re, mi" keys to their associated tones in single tone matching trials was not as "easy" a task as one might have expected. Analyses of stimuli-response tracking charts indicated that the major "pre-solution" behavior patterns were affected by the programmed sequences of material, and by the one, two, three, order inherent in the stimuli themselves. These data also provided evidence of the systematic nature of such performance, and that the relationships between sequence of material and patterns of responding can be subjected to experimental control. In the control experiment (conducted with youth and adult subjects) three different reinforcement procedures (feedback contingencies) were tested on a sequence of material developed in the exploratory phase. Procedure l provided production of the trial tone plus a red light signal for a correct response, and silence (no consequence) for an incorrect response. Procedure 2 was the same as procedure l, with exception that the red light signal was withheld. In procedure 3, correct and incorrect responses produced the associated tones of the keys pressed. Control experiment data (cumulative error graphs) revealed improvement in 13 out of 14 youth subjects, and in 10 out of 15 adult subjects. The procedures in which subjects heard the correct tones and not the incorrect tones in training (l and 2) produced more learning than the procedure (3) in which subjects heard the correct as well as the incorrect tones. Also, more learning was achieved under procedure l, which provided the red light consequence in addition to the tone for correct responding, than under procedure 2, which provided the tone only (no light). A behavioral model of key-tone matching was suggested as the framework for further research. The implications of the study were seen to extend beyond musical learning theory, to auditory learning theory in general. The relevance of the findings to education in general and to adult education in particular was indicated.2031-01-0

Foxp4 Is Dispensable for T Cell Development, but Required for Robust Recall Responses

<div><p>Transcription factors regulate T cell fates at every stage of development and differentiation. Members of the Foxp family of forkhead transcription factors are essential for normal T lineage development; Foxp3 is required for T regulatory cell generation and function, and Foxp1 is necessary for generation and maintenance of naïve T cells. Foxp4, an additional member of the Foxp family, is highly homologous to Foxp1 and has been shown to dimerize with other Foxp proteins. We report the initial characterization of Foxp4 in T lymphocytes. Foxp4 is expressed in both thymocytes and peripheral CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. We used a CD4Cre mediated approach to evaluate the cell autonomous role for Foxp4 in murine T lymphocytes. T cell development, peripheral cellularity and cell surface phenotype are normal in the absence of Foxp4. Furthermore, Foxp3⁺ T regulatory cells develop normally in Foxp4 deficient animals and naïve Foxp4 deficient CD4 T cells can differentiate to inducible T regulatory cells <em>in vitro</em>. In wild-type T cells, expression of Foxp4 increases following activation, but deletion of Foxp4 does not affect T cell proliferative responses or <em>in vitro</em> effector T cell differentiation. <em>In vivo</em>, despite effective control of <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em> and acute lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infections, effector cytokine production during antigen specific recall responses are reduced in the absence of Foxp4. We conclude that Foxp4 is dispensable for T cell development, but necessary for normal T cell cytokine recall responses to antigen following pathogenic infection.</p> </div

Foxp4 deletion alters recall responses to <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i> in the spleen and brain.

<p>A and C) Splenocytes and BMNC from mice infected with <i>T. gondii</i> 40 days earlier were cultured with anti-CD3, soluble tachyzoite antigen (STAg), or left unstimulated for twenty-four hours. Supernatants were analyzed for levels of IFNγ by ELISA, and normalized to a standard curve. Representative of 3 independent experiments. B and D) Splenocytes and BMNC were stimulated for four hours with PMA and Ionomycin in the presence of Brefeldin A, and assessed for intracellular IL-2 and IFNγ. Contour plots are gated on CD4⁺ or CD8⁺CD3⁺ cells. Relative percentage is shown within each gate. Splenocytes are representative of 9 Cre^NEG, 12 cHET and 15 cKO. BMNC are representative of 5 Cre^NEG, 7 cHET, and 7 cKO mice. E) CD8-depleted splenocytes from cHET and cKO mice were cultured in Th0 (left) or Th1 (right) polarizing conditions. Cells were restimulated in the presence of monensin. Histograms are gated on CD4⁺ T cells. cHET (filled histogram); cKO (black solid line); unstimulated (dashed line). Representative of 6 experiments.</p

T cell activation induces normal proliferation and effector T cell differentiation in the absence of Foxp4.

<p>A) C57BL/6 CD4⁺ T cells were isolated and plated in wells coated with 1 µg/mL anti-CD3 and 5 µg/mL soluble anti-CD28. Wells were harvested on the indicated days. RNA was isolated and cDNA was generated as described in <a href="http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0042273#s2" target="_blank">Materials and Methods</a>. Foxp4 relative to β-actin transcript levels were normalized to day 0. Representative of 2 experiments. B) CD4⁺ T cells were isolated from spleens of cHET and cKO mice, labeled with CFSE, and cultured four days in wells coated with indicated concentrations of anti-CD3 and 5 µg/mL soluble anti-CD28. Dilution of CFSE was assessed on day 4. Representative of 4 cHET and cKO mice. C) CD4⁺ T cells from cHET and cKO mice were stimulated overnight in wells coated with anti-CD3 plus soluble anti-CD28. Harvested cells were stained for CD69 and cytokine receptor IL-7R. Histograms are gated on CD4 or CD8 TCRβ⁺ cells. Representative of 2 experiments. D) cHET and cKO CD4⁺ T cells were cultured in wells coated with anti-CD3 plus soluble anti-CD28. After four days, cells were stained for expression of activation markers CD44 and CD62L. Representative of 4 cHET and 5 cKO mice.</p

Foxp4 is not required for the generation of peripheral CD4 and CD8 T cells.

<p>A) Absolute numbers from spleens from four-week-old cHET and cKO mice, including total spleen cellularity (top panel), numbers of CD4⁺ T cells (middle panel) and CD8+ T cells (bottom panel). B–C) Splenocytes cells from 6–8 week old cHET and cKO mice were stained for expression of CD4, CD8 and CD44 and CD62L or CD25, CD69, TCRβ, and IL-7 receptor (CD127) for immunophenotyping by polychromatic flow cytometry on LSRII. Histograms are gated on live, singlet CD4⁺ T cells. Representative of 4 independent experiments. D) Splenic Foxp3⁺ nTreg cells were identified by flow cytometry based on expression of CD4, CD25 and intracellular staining for Foxp3 protein. Gated frequencies are indicated. Representative of 7 cHET and 7 cKO mice. E) Frequencies of Treg were calculated using the splenic cellularity and relative frequency. Each point represents an individual mouse. Mean and standard deviation are indicated. F) Naïve CD4 T cells from cHET or cKO mice were polarized for four days <i>in vitro</i> in the presence of IL-2 with (left) or without (right) TGFβ. Wells were harvested and cells were assessed for expression of CD25 and Foxp3. Plots are gated on live, CD4⁺ cells. Representative of 4 experiments.</p

Deletion of Foxp4 at the DP stage does not alter thymocyte development.

<p>A) DNA isolated from cHET and cKO thymocytes was amplified using primers to detect wild-type, floxed, and deleted allelic sequences. Band sizes and identities are indicated. Representative of ten experiments. B) RNA isolated from WT (C57BL/6) and cKO thymocytes was assessed for Foxp4 by real time PCR. ND = not detectable. Representative of three experiments. C) Total cellularity was assessed in both cHET and cKO thymi from four-week-old littermates. Each point represents a single mouse. Mean and standard deviation are indicated. D) Thymocytes were stained for CD4 and CD8 and analyzed by polychromatic flow. Contour plots shown are previously gated on live, singlet-gated cells, negative for myeloid lineage markers (CD11b, CD11C, CD19, B220). Gated frequencies are indicated. Representative of twelve cHET and twelve cKO mice. E) Absolute numbers of thymocyte populations were determined. Each point represents an individual mouse. F) Thymocytes were stained with CD4, CD8, CD5 and HSA. Cells are gated on populations as indicated at the top of each column and assessed for CD5, TCRβ, and CD44 expression. Solid histograms are from cHET and bold lines are from cKO mice. Representative of 12 cHET and 12 cKO mice.</p

Foxp4 deficient CD4 T cells exhibit reduced memory recall responses following LCMV infection.

<p>Foxp4^FLOX/FLOXCre^NEG, cHET and cKO mice were infected with the Armstrong strain of LCMV by intraperitoneal injection at day 0, allowed to clear infection, and to generate memory T cells. At day 30 post-infection spleens were harvested for analysis. A) Frequencies of I-A^b:gp61⁺ CD44^hi CD4 T cells at day 30. Representative of 3 Cre^NEG, 5 cHET and 5 cKO mice across two independent infections. B) Numbers of I-A^b:gp61⁺ CD44^hi CD4 T cells were calculated. C) Splenocytes harvested at day 30 were restimulated with gp61 peptide for four hours <i>in vitro</i>, in the presence of Brefeldin A. Cells were assessed for cell surface expression of CD4, CD8, CD44, and stained intracellularly for IFNγ, TNFα, and IL-2. Representative plots of 3 Cre^NEG, 5 cHET and 5 cKO across two independent infections. D) Compiled frequencies of cells producing IFNγ, TNFα, or IL-2 (left), or polyfunctional cells producing all three cytokines (right). Cre^NEG, filled circles; cHET, filled squares; cKO, filled triangles.</p