A case study based assessment of potential cumulative impacts on groundwater from shale gas production in Northern England

The UK shale gas industry might see significant growth in the near future, with many energy companies already having gained approval and others in the stages of seeking approval for exploration. Exploratory boreholes have been in place in the Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire, and the Fylde Basin, Lancashire, since 2013 and 2010 respectively. Since then, several other sites around the UK have been earmarked for future exploration. The current absence of producing shale gas wells within the UK means it is too early to assess any actual impact of these operations at the local, regional and national scale. However, international analogues may provide some indications based on areas elsewhere in the world where a shale gas industry is more developed (e.g. the Marcellus Shale, USA) albeit with obvious limitations due to differences in geology and setting. While regulation and compliance of shale gas operations varies between countries, the process and method of extraction and the environmental risks are comparable. The general requirements for water, drilling mud/fluids, hydraulic fracturing fluids (“frac fluids”) and the design of wells and well pads can all be extracted from an already mature international experience. However, the requirements in the UK will be modified by the regulatory requirements and restrictions that exist. There are ongoing discussions within the UK to determine whether shale gas is beneficial, economically viable and environmentally safe. In this report, the impact on land use, groundwater quality and water resources of one well in a selection of approved Petroleum Exploration and Development Licence (PEDL) areas will be considered, followed by an estimation of the cumulative impacts that may result from multiple extraction sites within these areas. The exercise will depend on ranges of input parameters informed by international analogues applied in a UK geo-environmental setting. To recognise the variability in parameters and uncertainty in UK industry development, a range of impact scenarios - low, moderate and high – have been considered

Baseline groundwater chemistry: the Pennine Coal Measures of the East Midlands and South Yorkshire

This report details the hydrogeochemistry of a suite of inorganic and organic analytes in groundwater for the Pennine Coal Measures aquifer of the East Midlands and South Yorkshire region. The study aims to establish the groundwater baseline chemical compositions, particularly of those analytes that are and could be associated with onshore oil and gas (OOG) activities, in order to facilitate distinction between current compositions and any new industrial contamination from such activities. Analytes of special interest in this context include indicators of salinity, redox conditions, dissolved gases including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), and organic compounds including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The following assessment has been derived solely from Environment Agency Water Quality Archive (WIMS) data. The Pennine Coal Measures aquifer is a complex, multi-layered secondary aquifer, comprising sandstones interbedded with low-permeability mudstones and coal seams. Groundwater flow is influenced regionally both by natural structural features and a lasting legacy of coal-mining activities. Groundwater quality in the aquifer is characterised by a large range of pH values (4.9–9.3) and commonly high dissolved-solids contents (SEC up to 6030 μS/cm). Conditions in the aquifer appear reducing to strongly reducing, with typically elevated Fe and NH4, and in places high Mn, alongside low concentrations of NO3, U and V. Both dissolved Fe and SO4 are found in high concentrations in groundwater in a number of locations and are considered to be derived from the now-flooded mine workings and the dissolution of oxidised pyrite. Organic-carbon content in the groundwater has an upper baseline concentration of 5.22 mg/L for dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and 6.45 mg/L for total organic carbon (TOC). Sources for organic carbon within the aquifer may be partly anthropogenic (industry, urban, agricultural) in origin, but are in large part derived from the abundant coal seams present within the aquifer. No dissolved gas (CH4, CO2) analyses were available from the EA WIMS data, but previous studies have identified up to 9 mg/L of dissolved methane in groundwater from the area. Only a small number of PAH and VOC compounds were detected within the EA WIMS dataset, typically each of low concentrations (<1 μg/L), but with some evidence of localised pollution from anthropogenic sources

Baseline groundwater chemistry : the Lower Greensand aquifer of South East England

This report details the hydrogeochemistry of a broad suite of inorganic and organic analytes in groundwater from the Lower Greensand aquifer of south-east England. The study aims to establish the groundwater baseline chemical compositions, particularly of those analytes that are and could be associated with Onshore Oil and Gas (OOG) activities, in order to facilitate distinction between current compositions and any new industrial contamination from such activities. Analytes of particular interest in this context include indicators of salinity, indicators of redox conditions, dissolved gases including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), naturally-occurring radioactive materials (NORM) and organic compounds including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Much of the exposed unconfined aquifer is oxic in nature, with groundwater pH controlled by the sporadic presence of calcite within the aquifer matrix. Concentrations of a number of dissolved ions increase along the regional flow path, including Ca, HCO3, Mg, K, Sr, F, Al, As, Mn, Cu, Ni, Fe and Mn. The unconfined aquifer is susceptible to a number of anthropogenic impacts. These include diffuse pollution from agricultural activities (indicated by elevated concentrations of nitrate in groundwater across the northern half of the study area), and mobilisation of metals by acidic rainfall recharge in parts of the aquifer where acid-buffering carbonate minerals are absent. Dissolved organic carbon content of the Lower Greensand groundwater is typically low, with an upper baseline concentration of 4.6 mg/L. Anthropogenic organic chemicals detected as part of this study included chloroform, trichloroethene and chlorodibromomethane, but concentrations detected are orders of magnitude below the drinking-water standard for these compounds and not a cause for concern. Dissolved CH4 concentrations in the Lower Greensand aquifer are generally low; most samples in the investigation area contained 300 μg/L were observed (up to 461 μg/L)

Baseline groundwater chemistry : the Sherwood Sandstone aquifer of the East Midlands and South Yorkshire

This report details the hydrogeochemistry of a broad suite of inorganic and organic analytes in groundwater from the Sherwood Sandstone aquifer of the East Midlands and South Yorkshire. The study aims to establish the groundwater baseline chemical compositions, particularly of those analytes that are and could be associated with onshore oil and gas (OOG) activities, in order to facilitate distinction between current compositions and any new industrial contamination from such activities. Analytes of particular interest in this context include indicators of salinity, indicators of redox conditions, dissolved gases including CO2 and CH4, naturally-occurring radioactive materials and organic compounds including volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Groundwater from the Sherwood Sandstone aquifer of the region shows a range of chemical compositions resulting from inputs of modern atmospheric and surface pollution from varying sources, superimposed on natural water-rock interactions. Natural reactions are dominated by carbonate equilibrium, redox reactions, gypsum/anhydrite dissolution and time-dependent silicatemineral reaction. The Sherwood Sandstone crops out in the East Midlands but further northwards into Yorkshire, the aquifer in places becomes confined or semi-confined by overlying Quaternary superficial silts and clays. The Sherwood Sandstone dips gently eastwards and becomes confined by the poorly-permeable marls and mudstones of the Mercia Mudstone Group (MMG). At outcrop, the groundwater is young and oxic with evidence of inputs of pollutants including NO3, SO4 and Cl and possibly of Br, Cu, Pb and Zn from urban, industrial (including mine drainage) and agricultural sources. Small quantities of PAHs, pesticides and solvents are detected occasionally in the unconfined aquifer. Further north into Yorkshire, the aquifer is oxic in parts but becomes anoxic in places with superficial cover and with increasing depth. The reducing groundwaters in this zone have low NO3 concentrations and increased concentrations of Fe and Mn. Increased concentrations of Co, Sb and V may be associated with release of Fe and Mn into solution under mildly reducing conditions, either within the sandstone or from the superficial deposits. As the Sherwood Sandstone becomes confined eastwards by the MMG, downgradient chemical changes are controlled by maintained equilibrium with calcite and dolomite, dissolution of gypsum or anhydrite and development of reducing conditions. These controls see progressive increases downgradient in concentrations of SO4, and slight increases in concentrations of Fe, Mn, NH4 and Mo. High concentrations especially of SO4 and NH4 in the north-east area around Goole are speculatively associated with facies changes in the sandstone further north, the groundwater possibly interacting with a greater proportion of sulphate minerals and clays. In the deep confined aquifer, conditions are insufficiently reducing for SO4 reduction to be quantitatively important. Under the reducing conditions in the MMG-confined aquifer and to some extent in the areas covered by superficial deposits, small quantities of dissolved CH4 are detected (up to 120 µg/L in this study). Concentrations are low in the unconfined sections of the aquifer. Concentrations in the confined aquifer are relatively low because of a paucity of organic carbon in the aquifer for significant methanogenesis to take place. No other hydrocarbon or PAH, pesticide or solvent compounds were detected in the confined aquifer. Detection of a small quantity of chloroform at one location in the shallow confined aquifer is anomalous and difficult to explain. The groundwater shows a well-established downgradient increase in residence time as it passes beneath the MMG. Limited radiocarbon dating in this study supports previous conclusions that confined groundwater close to the western edge of the MMG has model ages of around 2000– 10,000 years, increasing to late Pleistocene (19,000 years) along the flow path at its eastern edge. The study reiterates that within the aquifer, fresh groundwater extends to around 20 km away from the outcrop and to depths of some 400–500 m below ground. The confined aquifer may be especially vulnerable to pollution from any future deep hydrocarbon exploration activities and would require careful monitoring

Baseline studies for assessing risks to groundwater from onshore oil and gas and other deep subsurface activities : synthesis report

This report is the final of a series of reports resulting from a BGS-EA collaboration to characterise the risks to groundwater from new developments in onshore oil and gas (OOG) exploration in England. The previous three reports (Mallin Martin and Smedley, 2020, Mallin Martin and Smedley, 2021a, Mallin Martin and Smedley, 2021b) were focused on establishing groundwater baseline chemical compositions, particularly of those analytes that are and could be associated with OOG activities, in order to facilitate distinction between current compositions and any new industrial contamination from such activities. This synthesis report uses the experience gained from these earlier reports to develop an assessment methodology for identifying the influence of both the baseline environment and anthropogenic impact on groundwater quality prior to any new OOG activity. The methodology also has relevance for other subsurface activities. The previous three reports in this series concluded that key influencing factors on baseline groundwater quality when considering OOG-type compounds were not the location of hydrocarbon extraction sites, but instead aquifer lithology and overlying superficial deposits. The methodology detailed in this report has been designed to provide a rapid assessment for the potential presence of OOG-type contaminants and other deep subsurface compounds in groundwater. The assessment has been designed to consider the magnitude of influence that each factor is likely to have on groundwater quality. The compounds may be either organic or inorganic: each are essential to understanding sources of contamination, but also for understanding the hydrogeological system. The findings from the case study area reports have been used to justify the weighting that each factor has on groundwater quality. The key factors to be considered are geological (e.g. aquifer lithology, proximity to organic rich sediments), hydrogeological (confined, unconfined) and anthropogenic activities (e.g. hydrocarbon extraction, surface activities). Conducting this assessment for a specific aquifer requires a baseline conceptual understanding of both the hydrogeology and hydrogeochemistry which is a key step in the process. The aim is that this can then be used to understand the potential impact a specific aquifer setting may have on groundwater quality, in relation to OOG and other deep subsurface compounds, prior to any development

PhiGO 2020 stakeholder workshop : information dissemination and data portal design

This report presents the summarised responses from participants at two stakeholder workshops, held in Iloilo and Pampanga, between 28th January and 5th of February 2020. The workshop focus centred on how stakeholders access hydrological information relevant to their jobs, and the required format that this data needs to take. Participants were asked about their current access routes to information, and their ideal access platform/web portal for hydrological data. This was so that the outputs of the PhiGO project could be tailored to meet as many stakeholder requirements as possible. Stakeholders clearly identified several common points for data access and formats across a number of sectors, and both in their professional and personal environments. Stakeholders required that data is predominantly visual, with a strong focus on maps, figures, and graphs, but backed up by information that can be interrogated, whether that be tabular data or summarised reports. Stakeholders desired a web portal that needed to be clean and easy to use, with guidance for navigation and explanation of complex terms. Detailed information must also be readily available, and the data should be available for offline downloading. The feedback from these stakeholders will feed directly into the final design of the PhiGO data portal

Environmental monitoring : phase 4 final report (April 2018 - March 2019)

This report describes the results of activities carried out as part of the Environmental Monitoring Project (EMP) led by the British Geological Survey (BGS) in areas around two shale gas sites in England – Kirby Misperton (Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire) and Preston New Road (Fylde, Lancashire). It focuses on the monitoring undertaken during the period April 2018–March 2019 but also considers this in the context of earlier monitoring results that have been covered in reports for earlier phases of the project (Phases I–IV) 2 . The EMP project is a multi-partner project involving BGS together with Public Health England (PHE), University of Birmingham, University of Bristol, University of Manchester, Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL) and University of York. The work has been enabled by funding from a combination of the BGS National Capability programme, a grant awarded by the UK Government’s Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy (BEIS) and additional benefit-in-kind contributions from all partners. The project comprises the comprehensive monitoring of different environment compartments and properties at and around the two shale-gas sites. The component parts of the EMP are all of significance when considering environmental and human health risks associated with shale gas development. Included are seismicity, ground motion, water (groundwater and surface water), soil gas, greenhouse gases, air quality, and radon. The monitoring started before hydraulic fracturing had taken place at the two locations, and so the results obtained before the initiation of operations at the shale-gas sites represent baseline conditions. It is important to characterise adequately the baseline conditions so that any future changes caused by shale gas operations, including hydraulic fracturing, can be identified. This is also the case for any other new activities that may impact those compartments of the environment being monitored as part of the project. In the period October 2018–December 2018, an initial phase of hydraulic fracturing took place at the Preston New Road (PNR) shale-gas site (shale gas well PNR1-z) in Lancashire. This was followed by a period of flow testing of the well to assess its performance (to end of January 2019). The project team continued monitoring during these various activities and several environmental effects were observed. These are summarised below and described in more detail within the report. The initiation of operations at the shale-gas site signified the end of baseline monitoring. At the Kirby Misperton site (KMA), approval has not yet been granted for hydraulic fracturing of the shale gas well (KM8), and so no associated operations have taken place during the period covered by this report. The effects on air quality arising from the mobilisation of equipment in anticipation of hydraulic fracturing operations starting was reported in the Phase III report, and in a recently published paper3 . Following demobilisation of the equipment and its removal from the site, conditions returned to baseline and the on-going monitoring (reported in this report) is effectively a continuation of baseline monitoring

Environmental monitoring : phase 5 final report (April 2019 - March 2020)

This report presents the results and interpretation for Phase 5 of an integrated environmental monitoring programme that is being undertaken around two proposed shale gas sites in England – Preston New Road, Lancashire and Kirby Misperton, North Yorkshire. The report should be read in conjunction with previous reports freely available through the project website1 . These provide additional background to the project, presentation of earlier results and the rationale for establishment of the different elements of the monitoring programme

Repairing Trust in Organizations and Institutions: Toward a Conceptual Framework

Trust plays a fundamental role in facilitating social exchange, yet recent global events have undermined trust in many of society’s institutions and organizations. This raises the pertinent question of how trust in organizations and institutions can be restored once it has been lost. The emerging literature on trust repair is largely focused at the micro level, with limited examination of how these processes operate at the macro level and across levels. In this introductory essay, we show how the papers in this special issue each advance our understanding of macro-level trust repair. We draw on these papers, as well as the extant interdisciplinary literature, to propose an integrated conceptual model of six key mechanisms for restoring trust in organizations and institutions, highlighting the merits, limits and paradoxes of each. We conclude that no single mechanism can be relied on to rebuild organizational trust and identify a future research agenda for advancing scholarly understanding of organizational and institutional trust repair