Ecosystem services of whales in the Arctic: co-production, valuation and governance

The thesis examines the dynamics of Arctic social-ecological systems (SES) that enable human wellbeing benefits through whale ecosystem services (ES). It does so through a review of relevant literature, construction of conceptual models, two primary economic and socio-cultural whale ES valuation studies, and an assessment of whale ES governability. The results indicate multiple human wellbeing benefits and associated economic, socio- cultural and biophysical values derived from marine ecosystems through whale ES in selected case study communities in Greenland, Iceland and Norway. These benefits include but are not limited to tourism, education, cultural identity, community cohesiveness, commercial and indigenous whaling, biodiversity enhancement, ecosystem regulation, inspiration for arts, and existence values. The case studies demonstrate that they are obtained by communities through human-nature co-production of whale ES and governed by a multilayered web of formal and informal governance interactions. The social-ecological complexity revealed in the analysis of whale ES underlines the importance of context and plural ES values in Arctic marine resource governance. It also implies a necessity to study social and ecological phenomena together as one co-evolving Earth system. Following these observations, conceptual models were developed integrating elements of ES, their co-production, and interactive governance and governability theories. The results of the governability assessment reveal high complexity and dynamics related to whale ES, ability of actors to self-govern, and a need for reflective and adaptive governance regimes. The relevance of the methodology and conceptual models applied in this research extends beyond the Arctic and can be applied in other natural resource contexts.Í þessari doktorsritgerð er gangverk félagslegra vistkerfa á norðurslóðum sem gera mönnum kleift að njóta góðs af vistkerfisþjónustu hvala skoðað. Þetta var gert með því að rýna núverandi stöðu þekkingar á tengdum fræðum, smíði á hugmyndalíkönum, tveimur frumrannsóknum á efnahagslegu og félags-menningarlegu gildi vistkerfisþjónustu hvala og mati á stjórnhæfni vistkerfisþjónustu hvala. Niðurstöðurnar benda til margvíslegs ávinnings fyrir velferð manna og tengdra efnahags-, félags-menningar- og lífeðlislegra gilda frá vistkerfum í hafi, sem tengd eru vistkerfisþjónustu hvala í þeim samfélögum á Grænlandi, Íslandi og Noregi sem valin voru sem tilvik rannsóknarinnar. Ávinning frá vistkerfisþjónustu hvala má meðal annars sjá hvað varðar ferðaþjónustu, fræðslu, menningarlega sjálfsmynd, samfélagslega samheldni, hvalveiðar í bæði atvinnuskyni og fyrir frumbyggja, eflingu líffræðilegs fjölbreytileika, regluverk tengt vistkerfinu, innblástur fyrir listsköpun og tilvistargildi. Tilviksrannsóknirnar sýna að samfélagið í heild sinni nýtur ávinningsins með því að lifa í sátt og samlyndi við náttúruna og með góðri, marglaga stjórnun í gegnum formleg og óformleg samskipti. Greining á vistkerfisþjónustu hvala varpaði ljósi á félags-vistfræðilegt flækjustig sem undirstrikar mikilvægi þess að íhuga samhengið og margvísleg gildi vistkerfisþjónustu í stjórnun auðlinda hafsins á norðurslóðum. Þessi greining gaf einnig til kynna nauðsyn þess að rannsaka félags- og vistfræðileg fyrirbæri saman sem hluta af þróunarkerfi jarðarinnar. Í kjölfar þessara athugana voru hugmyndalíkön þróuð þar sem þættir úr vistkerfisþjónustu, samframleiðsla þeirra og gagnvirkar stjórnunar- og stjórnhæfnikenningar voru samþættar. Niðurstöður á mati á stjórnhæfni sýndu fram á hátt flækjustig og gangverk tengd vistkerfisþjónustu hvala, hæfni aðila til að stjórna sér sjálfir og þörf fyrir sveigjanleg stjórnkerfi. Gildi aðferðafræðinnar og þeirra hugmyndalíkana sem þróuð voru í þessari rannsókn nær út fyrir norðurslóðir og er hægt að beita á aðrar náttúruauðlindir.NordForsk (grant number 76654) - ARCPATH project University of Iceland Doctoral FundPrinted versio

Socio-cultural valuation of whale ecosystem services in Skjálfandi Bay, Iceland

Pre-print (óritrýnt handrit)The study examines the socio-cultural values of multiple ecosystem services (ES) sourced from whales in Skjálfandi Bay, North Iceland, with many beneficiaries living in and visiting the town of Húsavík. The study begins to address the research gap in non-monetary valuation of marine ecosystem services. Based on a multi-method approach, it elicits stakeholders' perceptions of the contribution of whale ES to human wellbeing using stakeholder mapping, semi-structured interviews, observations, and socio-cultural preference surveys. The key whale ES identified by the local stakeholders were cultural, most frequently mentioned being recreation and education. The most commonly mentioned ES values were related to economic benefits from the whale watching industry. The preference survey reveals that regulating and maintenance ES were valued most highly with a mean score of 4.0 out of 5.0, cultural ES were second with a mean score of 3.5, and provisioning ES in the form of food and raw materials were valued the least with a mean of 0.75. Interview data also reveals some marine ES management challenges originating from intensified tourism, industrial development, and climate change. The results of the study have the potential to inform marine resource management in Iceland by including socio-cultural values associated with whale resources.This paper has been subject to funding from NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities) and the Doctoral Grant of the University of Iceland Research Fund

Ecosystem services in the Arctic: a thematic review

The study presents the first systematic review of the existing literature on Arctic ES. Applying the Search, Appraisal, Synthesis and Analysis (SALSA) and snowballing methods and three selection criteria, 33 publications were sourced, including peer-reviewed articles, policy papers and scientific reports, and their content synthesised using the thematic analysis method. Five key themes were identified: (1) general discussion of Arctic ES, (2) Arctic social-ecological systems, (3) ES valuation, (4) ES synergies and/or trade-offs, and (5) integrating the ES perspective into management. The meta-synthesis of the literature reveals that the ES concept is increasingly being applied in the Arctic context in all five themes, but there remain large knowledge gaps concerning mapping, assessment, economic valuation, analysis of synergies, trade-offs, and underlying mechanisms, and the social effects of ES changes. Even though ES are discussed in most publications as being relevant for policy, there are few practical examples of its direct application to management. The study concludes that more primary studies of Arctic ES are needed on all of the main themes as well as governance initiatives to move Arctic ES research from theory to practice

Ecosystem services in the Arctic: a thematic review

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)The study presents the first systematic review of the existing literature on Arctic ES. Applying the Search, Appraisal, Synthesis and Analysis (SALSA) and snowballing methods and three selection criteria, 33 publications were sourced, including peer-reviewed articles, policy papers and scientific reports, and their content synthesised using the thematic analysis method. Five key themes were identified: (1) general discussion of Arctic ES, (2) Arctic social-ecological systems, (3) ES valuation, (4) ES synergies and/or trade-offs, and (5) integrating the ES perspective into management. The meta-synthesis of the literature reveals that the ES concept is increasingly being applied in the Arctic context in all five themes, but there remain large knowledge gaps concerning mapping, assessment, economic valuation, analysis of synergies, trade-offs, and underlying mechanisms, and the social effects of ES changes. Even though ES are discussed in most publications as being relevant for policy, there are few practical examples of its direct application to management. The study concludes that more primary studies of Arctic ES are needed on all of the main themes as well as governance initiatives to move Arctic ES research from theory to practice.Peer Reviewe

Whale sanctuaries – An analysis of their contribution to marine ecosystem-based management

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Goal 14, ‘Life Below Water’, of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals sets a target for nations to increase the number of marine protected areas managed using ecosystem-based management, which requires interventions focused on fish stock conservation and enhancement, environmental sustainability and ecosystem services of benefit to human beings. Although not adhering to the International Union for Conservation of Nature's criteria for marine protected areas, whale sanctuaries are an increasingly common approach to conservation around the world. This paper is the first in the academic literature to use a case study approach to review the extent to which whale sanctuaries contribute to ecosystem-based management. A fifteen-criteria framework for marine ecosystem-based management is applied with reference to six whale sanctuary case studies, including the International Whaling Commission's two designations in the Indian Ocean and Southern Ocean. The review underscores the generally very limited contribution of whale sanctuaries to ecosystem-based management, unless they are explicit in stating conservation goals and embedding these within iterative management plans. The Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary is cited as an example of an approach that comes closest to fulfilling the objectives of ecosystem-based management, albeit its designation lacks consideration of ecosystem dynamics and the interrelationships between multiple economic actors operating within its boundaries. In order to meet the requirements of Goal 14, the case studies in this paper reveal advancements necessary for whale sanctuaries to transition towards ecosystem-based management: establishment of objectives broader than the conservation of whale stocks, assessment of the contribution of the sanctuary to human well-being and trade-offs in ecosystem services, accounting for ecological and socio-economic dynamics, and ensuring broad stakeholder consultation and participatory adaptive management.This paper has been funded by NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities).Peer Reviewe

A cascade model and initial exploration of co-production processes underpinning the ecosystem services of geothermal areas

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)This paper presents the first study in the academic literature to explore the various stages in the formation of geothermal ES and their interactions between the biosphere and anthroposphere. This is achieved through the development of the first ES cascade model in the academic literature specific to geothermal ES, which integrates the four main stages of co-production: value attribution, mobilisation of ES potential, value appropriation, and commercialisation. In so doing, conceptual understanding of human-environment relationships and processes in the context of geothermal ES are deepened. Examples from the academic and grey literature demonstrate that realisation of the full spectrum of benefits from geothermal areas often demands the mobilisation of various forms of physical capital. Reaping the benefits of provisioning ES, such as heat and minerals, or formal recreational experiences, such as geothermal spas, necessitates human interventions. Opportunities of likely value have to be attributed, with resources being mobilised in order to plan and research prospectivity, then benefits appropriated with a view to their commercialisation. Large-scale, industrial projects, especially geothermal power plants in high enthalpy fields, also constitute an overlap between anthropogenic and ecological systems, often leading to ES trade-offs, especially due to visual and noise impacts on the surroundings. Depending on the sociocultural context, multiple and conflicting value domains may be impacted by such ventures, justifying the adoption of a pluralist approach to valuation and use of integrated decision-support platforms to aid decision-makers.This paper has been subject to funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research programme in relation to the DEEPEGS project (grant no. 690771).Peer Reviewe

Co-production processes underpinning the ecosystem services of glaciers and adaptive management in the era of climate change

Pre-print / Óritrýnd útgáfa greinar © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.Glaciers have been an increasingly studied topic in the ecosystem services (ES) literature, with 6 multiple scientific studies affirming a critical and diverse contribution to human well-being. 7 However, the literature to date on glacier ES has lacked a systematic analysis of their type and 8 the various stages in the formation of glacier ES, including the linkages between biophysical 9 structures and ecological processes to human values, benefits and well-being. This paper begins 10 to fill this gap by (1) detailing the first Common International Classification for Ecosystem 11 Services classification of ecosystem services specific to glaciers; and (2) constructing an ES 12 cascade model specific to the ES of glaciers, integrating four main stages of co-production: 13 value attribution, mobilisation of ES potential, value appropriation, and commercialisation. In 14 both stages, examples from the academic and grey literature are highlighted. Based on a 15 systematic literature review, a total of 15 ES are identified, categorised as follows: provisioning 16 (2), regulation and maintenance (6), and cultural (7). Apart from abiotic regulation and 17 maintenance ES, it is evident that human interventions are necessary in order to mobilise, 18 appropriate and commercialise several glacier ES, including freshwater for drinking, 19 hydropower generation, recreation and education. Rapidly intensifying climate change has led 20 to intense focus on the initial co-production process of value attribution and identification of 21 dynamic ecosystem services potential, with a view to maximising commercial benefits in the 22 coming decades where this is possible, especially linked to hydropower generation from glacial 23 rivers. However, this study also finds that adaptive ecosystem management is a necessary pre24 requisite of resilience but may be insufficient in this context to address potential ecosystem 25 disservices and potentially catastrophic impacts to human well-being, such as from dangerous 26 glacier outburst floods.This paper has been funded by NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to 743 the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to 744 Resilient, Sustainable Communities)

Willingness to pay for expansion of the whale sanctuary in Faxaflói Bay, Iceland: A contingent valuation study

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Commercial whaling is a divisive issue in Iceland, and often considered to be irreconcilable with whale watching. The coexistence of both activities in Faxaflói Bay, adjacent to the capital city of Reykjavík, has led to the designation of part of the bay as a whale sanctuary, where whaling is banned. The study utilises the contingent valuation method to elicit the preferences of Icelanders and estimate their willingness to pay (WTP) to expand the sanctuary to the full extent of Faxaflói Bay, with an aim to inform marine spatial planning in Iceland. Using the double-bounded dichotomous approach, the mean WTP for expansion of the Faxaflói Bay Whale Sanctuary was estimated to be 5082 ISK/42 USD per person (1.32 billion ISK/10.9 million USD when multiplied by the number of taxpayers), and 29.7% of the respondents with clearly defined preferences expressed positive WTP. According to the logit regression model, statistically significant socioeconomic and attitudinal variables included age, gender, level of education, number of persons in a household, and attitudes towards environmental conservation and whaling. Policy implications of non-market valuation of marine ES are discussed, pointing to a need to further assess the multiple marine ES values applying a transdisciplinary approach to inform decision-making.This work is supported by the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH "Arctic Climate Predictions: Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Societies" (Grant No. 76654), funded by the Nordic Arctic Research initiative.Peer Reviewe

Reflections on the ecosystem services of whales and valuing their contribution to human well-being

Post-print (lokagerð höfundar)Although whale ecosystem services have been scarcely explored in the academic literature, they illustrate many of the threats, trade-offs and decision-making dilemmas common to marine ecosystem services in general – climate change impacts, the ongoing need to provide remote communities with forms of sustenance, and the potential development of new economic sectors which are prosperous but undermine traditional ways of life. In this paper, the first evaluation is carried out of the ecosystem services specific to whales, involving (a) their classification using the established Common International Classification Ecosystem Services (CICES) framework, (b) an assessment of the most suitable methods for their valuation, and (c) implications for decision-making. Our findings are that whale ecosystem services belong to all three categories of the CICES classification and cultural services are the most common type. The most suitable approach for the respective valuation of each service depends on the local socio-cultural context, a fundamental ingredient in value formation, which can formulate on either an individual or collective basis. In the case of individual value formation, this paper recommends the use of economic information derived from non-market valuation techniques; for collective, non-monetary techniques are advised. Given the complexity of human-environment interactions, a pluralist approach to valuation is likely to be required, whereby decision-makers are informed about impacts to whale ecosystem services through a mixture of economic and non-monetary information. A logical consequence of value pluralism is the need for decision-support platforms which can satisfactorily integrate different types of information concerning ecosystem service impacts, evaluating these against multiple marine management objectives. The paper briefly reflects on the potential of Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis to fulfil this ambition, before discussing some of the current challenges and barriers which have limited the uptake of ecosystem services research in marine planning and decision-making.This paper has been funded by NordForsk (grant number 76654) via their financial support to the Nordic Centre of Excellence ARCPATH (Arctic Climate Predictions – Pathways to Resilient, Sustainable Communities).Peer Reviewe